THINKING ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY: �THE SCIENCE OF MIND AND BEHAVIOR

CHARLES T. BLAIR-BROEKER

RANDAL M. ERNST

RESEARCH STRATEGIES

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WHY IS RESEARCH IMPORTANT?

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RESEARCH METHODS

• Play “Aliens Have Landed” (11:25) Segment #3 from Scientific American Frontiers: Video Collection for Introductory Psychology (2^nd edition).
• Follow with a discussion on the unbiased scientific research.

PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

• Two forms of psychological research
• Basic research seeks answers for theoretical questions
• Eg. How is hunger controlled by the brain?

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• Applied research seeks answers for specific application problems
• Eg. Organizational psychology studies leadership, job satisfaction, job training and development

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TYPES OF RESEARCH

• Research can be done experimentally, under very controlled circumstances (eg. in a lab) or can be done non-experimentally (case study, survey, naturalistic observation)
• You need to operationally define your variables in all types of research (statement of procedures used to define your research variables)

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THEORY

A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.

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For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.

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HYPOTHESIS

A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.

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People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

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RESEARCH OBSERVATIONS

Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.

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RESEARCH PROCESS

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SCIENTIFIC METHOD

• Technique using tools such as observation, experimentation, and statistical analysis to learn about the world
• Through its use, psychology is thereby considered a science.

RESEARCH AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Method of asking questions then drawing logical supported conclusions
• Researchers need to be able to determine if conclusions are reasonable or not (critical thinking).

COMMON SENSE

• Conclusions based solely on personal experience and sensible logic
• Can lead to incorrect conclusions

OBSERVATION AND BIAS

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OBSERVATION

• Gathering of information by simply watching subjects
• Can lead to bias

BIAS

• Situation in which a factor unfairly increases the likelihood of a researcher reaching a particular conclusion
• Bias should be minimized as much as possible in research

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RESEARCHER BIAS

• The tendency to notice evidence which supports one particular point of view or hypothesis
• Objectivity tends to reduce bias.

CRITICAL THINKING

• Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments or conclusions but questions their validity

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PARTICIPANT BIAS

• Tendency of research subjects to respond in certain ways because they know they are being observed
• The subjects might try to behave in ways they believe the researcher wants them to behave
• Can be reduced by naturalistic observation

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION

• Method of observation where subjects are observed in their “natural” environment
• Subjects are not aware they are being watched
• Could use hidden cameras or two way mirrors

CASE STUDIES

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CASE STUDY

• In depth study of one individual with the hopes of determining universal principles
• This technique is very open to bias
• Difficulty of applying data from one person to everyone

CORRELATION

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CORRELATIONAL STUDY

• Research study designed to determine the degree to which two variables are related to one another

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HOW TO READ A CORRELATION

POSITIVE CORRELATION

• As the value of one variable increases (or decreases) so does the value of the other variable.
• A perfect positive correlation is +1.0.
• The closer the correlation is to +1.0, the stronger the relationship.

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NEGATIVE CORRELATION

• As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases.
• A perfect negative correlation is -1.0.
• The closer the correlation is to -1.0, the stronger the relationship.

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ZERO CORRELATION

• There is no relationship whatsoever between the two variables.

CORRELATIONAL STUDY

• Important NOT to imply a cause and effect relationship between the variables
• Correlational study does not determine why the two variables are related--just that they are related.
• Correlational studies are helpful in making predictions.

SURVEYS

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SURVEY METHOD

• Research method that relies on self-reports; uses surveys, questionnaires, interviews.
• Usually a very efficient and inexpensive method

POPULATION

• The total large group being studied from which a sample is drawn for a study

RANDOM SAMPLE

• A sample that represents a population fairly:
• Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included.
• If a sample is not random it is said to be biased.

WHAT ARE THE ODDS OF EACH?

WHAT ARE THE ODDS OF EACH?

1 in 2,598,960

WHAT ARE THE ODDS OF EACH?

1 in 2,598,960

1 in 2,598,960

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES

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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGISTS

• Psychologists who study how individuals change throughout their lifetime

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LONGITUDINAL STUDY

• Developmental study where researchers study the same group of individuals for many years
• Can be very expensive and difficult to conduct

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY

• Developmental study where researchers simultaneously study a number of subjects from different age groups and then compare the results
• Cheaper, easier than longitudinal studies, but group differences may be due to factors other than development.

LONGITUDINAL/CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY

EXPERIMENTS: HYPOTHESES AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

• Play “Water, Water Everywhere” (12:20) Segment #2 from Scientific American Frontiers: Video Collection for Introductory Psychology (2^nd edition)

HYPOTHESIS

• A testable prediction of the outcome of the experiment or research

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OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

• A specification of the exact procedures used to make a variable specific and measurable for research purposes
• In evaluating others’ research, first determine if you agree with the researchers’ operational definitions.

EXPERIMENTS: INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

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INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

• The experimental variable which causes something to happen
• The “cause variable”
• The variable manipulated by the experimenter
• The variable which should change the dependent variable

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

• The experimental variable which is affected by the independent variable
• The “effect variable”
• The outcome of the experiment
• The variable being measured

EXPERIMENTS: GROUPS, RANDOM ASSIGNMENT, AND CONFOUNDING VARIABLES

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EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

• The subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the treatment (independent variable)
• Also called the experimental condition
• The group being studied and compared to the control group

CONTROL GROUP

• Are not exposed to the independent variable
• Results are compared to those of the experimental group
• Also called the control condition

CONFOUNDING VARIABLES

• Variables, other than the independent variable, which could inadvertently influence the dependent variable
• These variables should be controlled for in order to draw a true, cause-effect relationship in the experiment.
• Many confounding variables can be eliminated through random assignment.

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT

• Assigning participants to the control and experimental groups by chance
• Each participant should have an equal chance of being assigned into either group.

EXPERIMENTS

• Play “Experimental Design” (7:24) Segment #3 from Psychology: The Human Experience

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EXPERIMENTS: CONTROL FOR OTHER CONFOUNDING VARIABLES

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CONFOUNDING VARIABLES: �ENVIRONMENTAL DIFFERENCES

• Any differences in the experiment’s conditions--between the experimental and control groups
• Differences include temperature, lighting, noise levels, distractions, etc.
• Ideally, there should be a minimum of environmental differences between the two groups.

CONFOUNDING VARIABLES:�EXPECTATION EFFECTS

• Any changes in an experiment’s results due to the subject anticipating certain outcomes to the experiment

BLIND PROCEDURE

• An experimental procedure where the research participants are ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the experiment
• Sometimes called single blind procedure

DOUBLE BLIND PROCEDURE

• An experimental procedure where both the research participants and those collecting the data are ignorant (blind) to the expected outcome of the experiment

PLACEBO

• A non-active substance or condition administered instead of a drug or active agent
• Given to the control group

PLACEBO EFFECT

• Play “The Placebo Effect: Mind-Body Relationship” (9:14) Segment #3 from The Mind: Psychology Teaching Modules (2^nd edition)

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EXPERIMENTS: DATA ANALYSIS

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STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT

• Possibility that the differences in results between the experimental and control groups could have occurred by chance is no more than 5 percent
• Must be at least 95% certain the differences between the groups is due to the independent variable

EXPERIMENTS: REPLICATION

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REPLICATION

• Repeating the experiment to determine if similar results are found
• If so, the research is considered reliable.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

• Play “Tackling a Killer Disease” (10:07) Segment #1 from Scientific American Frontiers: Video Collection for Introductory Psychology (2^nd edition)

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ETHICS

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ETHICS:�HUMAN RESEARCH�(FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLES)

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1. INFORMED CONSENT

• Participants must be informed, in advance, about:
• the general nature of the research, and
• any potential risk.
• Participants must have the right to refuse participation or withdraw at any time.

2. RIGHT TO BE PROTECTED FROM HARM AND DISCOMFORT

• Studies involving harm or discomfort may be conducted only under certain circumstances, and only with the informed consent of the participants.

3. RIGHT OF CONFIDENTIALITY

• Individual data about research participants should never be discussed or released.

4. RIGHT TO DEBRIEFING

• Participants have a right to receive a complete explanation of the research at the end of the study.
• This is extremely important if the research involves deception.

ETHICS:�ANIMAL RESEARCH

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REASONS FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH

• Interest in animal behavior as a topic of study
• Data from animal studies may apply to humans.
• Easier to do some type of studies (genetics) due to the shorter life span of animals

REASONS FOR ANIMAL RESEARCH

• Easier to exercise more control over experiments with animals as compared to humans
• Procedures that are not ethical to perform on humans may be considered acceptable when performed on animals

CARE OF ANIMALS USED IN RESEARCH

• Animals used in research must:
• Have clean housing with adequate ventilation
• Have appropriate food
• Be well cared for

THE END