Communications, Networks, & Cyberthreats

Chapter 6

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Introduction to Information Technology

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Chapter Topics

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UNIT 6A: Networks & Wired & Wireless Data

6.1 From the Analog to the Digital Age

6.2 Networks

6.3 Wired Communications Data

6.4 Wireless Communications Media

UNIT 6B: Cyberthreats, Security, & Privacy Issues

6.5 Cyberintruders: Trolls, Spies, Hackers, & Thieves

6.6 Cyberattacks & Malware

6.7 Concerns about Privacy & Identity Theft

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Digital convergence is the gradual merger of computing and communications into a new information environment, in which the same information is exchanged among many kinds of equipment, using the language of computers.

• At the same time, there has been a convergence of several important industries—computers, telecommunications, consumer electronics, entertainment, mass media— producing new electronic products that perform multiple functions.

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6.1 From the Analog �to the Digital Age

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Digital

• Computers use digital signals—0s and 1s, off and on.
• All the data that a computer processes is a series of

0s and 1s.

• Each signal is a bit.

Analog

• But most phenomena in life are analog.
• Analog signals use wave variations, continuously changing.
• Sound, light, and temperature are analog forms.
• Traditional TV and radio use analog signals.
• Humans’ vision operates in analog mode.

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But analog data can be converted into digital form. Even though digital data is not as exact as analog data, it is easier to manipulate.

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• For data transmission over telephone lines and cables, modems are needed to convert analog data into digital data that computers can use.
• Modem is short for modulate/demodulate. Modems modulate (convert) a computer’s digital data to analog data, transmit it, then demodulate (reconvert) it back to digital data for the receiving computer.
• Modems can convert data by modulating either a analog wave’s amplitude or its frequency.

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6.2 Networks

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• Network: system of interconnected computers, telephones, and/or other communications devices that can communicate with one another and share applications and data.
• Benefits of Networks
• Share peripheral devices, such as printers, scanners, disk drives
• Share software
• Share data and information
• Better communications
• Accessing databases
• Centralized communications
• Security of information, because of improved backup systems

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Types of networks: WANs, MANs, & Others

• Wide area network (WAN): Communications network that covers a wide geographic area, such as a country or the world. Most long-distance and regional telephone companies are WANs. WANs are used to connect local area networks. The best example of a WAN is the Internet.
• Metropolitan area network (MAN): Communications network covering a city or a suburb. Many cellphone systems are MANs.
• Local area network (LAN): Connects computers and devices in a limited geographic area, such as one office, one building, or a group of buildings close together. LANs are the basis for most office networks, and the organization that runs the LAN owns it. WANs and MANs generally use a common carrier—a telecommunications company that hires itself out to the public to provide communications transmission services—for at least part of its connections. (A home area network is a LAN.)

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Network Architecture: How Networks Are Structured

1. Client/Server

• Consists of clients, which are computers that request data, and servers, which are computers that supply data.
• File servers act like a network-based shared disk drive.
• Database servers store data but don’t store programs.
• Print servers connect one or more printers and schedule and control print jobs.
• Mail servers manage email.

2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P)

• All computers on the network are “equal” and communicate directly with one another, without relying on servers.

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Intranets, Extranets, & VPNs: Use the Internet as their base

• Intranets—use infrastructure and standards of the Internet and the web, but for an organization’s internal use only.
• Extranets—similar to intranets but allows use by selected outside entities, such as suppliers.
• VPNs (virtual private networks): use a public network (usually the Internet) plus intranets and extranets to connect an organization’s various sites) but on a private basis, via encryption and authentication; regular Internet users do not have access to the VPN’s data and information.

All use firewalls for security, a system of hardware and/or software that protects the system from intruders.

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• Network Components — all networks have several things in common:
• wired = twisted-pair, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable
• wireless = infrared, microwave, radio, Wi-Fi, satellite
• Hosts and Nodes: Client/server network has a host computer, which controls the network; a node is any device attached to the network.
• Packets—fixed-length blocks of data for transmission, reassembled after transmission.
• Protocols—set of conventions, or rules, governing the exchange of data between hardware and/or software components in the network; built into the hardware or software you are using. (continued)

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• The protocol in your communications software specifies how receiver devices will acknowledge sending devices, a matter called handshaking. Handshaking establishes the fact that the circuit is available and operational. It also establishes the level of device compatibility and the speed of transmission.
• In addition, protocols specify the type of electronic connections used, the timing of message exchanges, and error-detection techniques.
• Each packet, or electronic message, carries four types of information that will help it get to its destination;
1. the sender’s address (IP)
2. the intended receiver’s address
3. how many packets the complete message has been broken into
4. the number of this particular packet. The packets carry the data in the protocols that the Internet uses—that is, TCP/IP

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Network linking devices:

• Switch—Device that connects computers to a network; sends only to intended recipients; operates back and forth at the same time.
• Bridge—Interface device that connects same type of networks.
• Gateway—Interface device that connects dissimilar networks.
• Router—Device that directs messages among several networks, wired or and/or wireless.
• Backbone—Main Internet highway that connects all networks in an organization; includes switches, gateways, routers, etc.
• NIC (Network interface card)—inserted in a slot on the motherboard, enables computer to operate as part of a network.
• NOS (network operating system)—the system software that manages network activity.

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• Network topology: The layout (shape) of a network
• Star – all nodes are connected through a central network switch
• Ring – all nodes are connected in a continuous loop
• Bus – all nodes are connected to a single wire or cable
• Tree – a bus network of star networks
• Mesh – messages sent to the destination can take any possible shortest, easiest route to reach its destination. There must be at least two paths to any individual computer to create a mesh network. (Wireless networks are often implemented as a mesh, and the Internet is a mesh.)

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Introduction to Information Technology

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Introduction to Information Technology

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Introduction to Information Technology

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Introduction to Information Technology

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Ethernet

• Network standard for linking all devices in a local area network that describes how data can be sent between computers and other networked devices usually in close proximity.
• Ethernet deals with LAN collisions; Ethernet is a LAN technology that can be used with almost any kind of computer and that describes how data can be sent between computers and other networked devices usually in close proximity.
• The Ethernet communications protocol is embedded in software and hardware devices intended for building a local area network (LAN), and it is commonly used in star topologies.

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6.3 Wired Communications Media

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Communications media are the means of interchanging or transmitting and receiving information.

• Twisted-Pair Wire (dial-up connections)
• 2 strands of insulated copper wire twisted around each other
• Twisting reduces interference (crosstalk) from electrical signals
• Data rates are 1 – 128 megabits per second (slow)
• Coaxial Cable
• Insulated copper wire wrapped in a metal shield and then in an external plastic cover
• Used for cable TV and cable Internet electric signals
• Carries voice and data up to 200 megabits per second

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Fiber-optic cable

• Dozens or hundreds of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit pulses of light, not electricity
• Can transmit up to 2 gigabits per second (very fast)
• Have lower error rate than twisted-pair or coax
• More expensive than twisted-pair or coax
• Lighter and more durable than twisted-pair or coax
• More difficult to tap into than twisted-pair or coax

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• Wired connections media for the home:
• Ethernet
• Connect to PC’s Ethernet network interface card (NIC)
• For several PCs, get a switch to connect them all
• 10 or 100 megabits per second
• HomePNA
• Uses existing telephone wiring and jacks
• Requires HomePNA NIC in your PC
• Speeds of about 320 megabits per second
• Homeplug
• Uses existing home electrical lines
• Speeds of 200 megabits per second

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6.4 Wireless Communications Media

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• Electromagnetic spectrum of radiation is the basis of all telecommunications signals, wired and wireless.
• Radio-frequency (RF) spectrum is the

part of the electromagnetic spectrum

that carries most communications

signals.

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Bandwidth: range (band) of frequencies that a transmission medium can carry in a given period of time

• Analog bandwidth is expressed in hertz, digital bandwidth usually in bits per second (bps)
• Narrowband (voiceband): used for regular telephone communications
• Transmission rate 1.5 megabits per second or less
• Broadband: For high-speed data and high-quality audio and video; wide band of frequencies
• Transmission rate 1.5 megabits per second to 1 gigabit per second or more

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• TC/IP (Ch. 2) is the protocol for getting wired devices connected to the Internet
• WAP (wireless application protocol): Wireless handheld devices such as cellphones use the Wireless Application Protocol for connecting wireless users to the Web. Just as the protocol TCP/IP was designed to provide a wired connection to your Internet access provider, WAP is a standard designed to link nearly all mobile devices telecommunications carriers’ wireless networks and content providers.

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Five Types of Wireless Communications Media

• Infrared Transmission
• Sends signals using infrared light (TV remotes)
• Frequencies are too low to see (1-16 megabits per second)
• Broadcast Radio
• AM/FM, CB, ham, cellphones, police radio
• Sends data over long distances using a transmitter and a receiver (up to 2 megabits per second)
• Cellular Radio
• Form of broadcast radio
• Widely used in cellphones and wireless modems
• Transmits voice and digital messages

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Five Types of Wireless Communications Media (continued)

• Microwave Radio
• Superhigh-frequency radio transmit voice and data at 45 megabits per second
• Requires line-of-sight transmitters and receivers
• More than ½ of today’s telephones systems use microwave
• Communications Satellites
• Microwave relay stations in orbit around the earth
• Basis for Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
• Cover broad service area

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Communications Satellites (continued)

• Can be placed at different heights: GEO, MEO, LEO
• GEO – geostationary earth orbit
• 22,300 miles above earth; travel at the same speed as the earth and so appear to us to be stationary
• Always above equator
• Transmission delay (latency) can make conversations difficult; not good for applications requiring real-time user input
• MEO – medium-earth orbit
• 5,000 – 10,000 miles up
• LEO – low-earth orbit
• 200 – 1,000 miles up
• Has no signal delay

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Long-Distance Wireless: One-Way Communication

• GPS (Global Positioning System)
• 24 to 32 MEO satellites continuously transmitting timed radio signals to identify Earth locations
• Each satellite circles earth twice each day at 11,000 miles up
• GPS receivers pick up transmissions from up to 4 satellites and pinpoint the receiver’s location
• Accurate within 3 – 50 feet, with a norm of 10 feet accuracy
• Not all services based on GPS technology are reliable

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Long-Distance Wireless: One-Way Communication (continued)

• One-way Pagers: radio receivers that receive data sent from a special radio transmitter
• Radio transmitter sends out signals over the special frequency; pagers are tuned to that frequency
• When a particular pager hears its own code, it receives and displays the message
• Often used in hospitals and areas where smartphones are not allowed

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Long-Distance Wireless: Two-Way Communication

• 1G: First-Generation Cellular Service
• Analog cellphones
• Designed for voice communication using a system of hexagonal ground-area cells around transmitter-receiver cell towers
• Good for voice – less effective for data because of handing off
• 2G: Second-Generation Cellular Service
• Uses digital signals
• First digital voice cellular network

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Long-Distance Wireless: Two-Way Communication (continued)

• 3G: Third-Generation Cellular Service
• Broadband technology
• Carries data at high speeds: 144 kilobits per second up to 3.1 megabits per second
• Accepts e-mail with attachments
• Displays color video and still pictures
• Plays music

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Long-Distance Wireless: Two-Way Communication (continued)

• 4G: Fourth-Generation Cellular Service
• A nationwide 4G network is in development; up to 100 megabits/second
• Enables faster Internet surfing
• Includes LTE (Long Term Evolution), an international standard widely adopted in the United States and several countries in Europe and Asia. LTE supports data transfer rates of up to 100 megabits per second over cellular networks.

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Short-Range Wireless: Two-Way Communication

• Local Area Networks
• Range 100 – 228 feet
• Include Wi-Fi (802.11) type networks
• Wi-Fi n is the latest and fastest Wi-Fi technology
• Personal Area Networks
• Range 30 – 33 feet
• Use Bluetooth, ultra wideband, and wireless USB
• Home Automation networks
• Range 100 – 150 feet
• Use Insteon, ZigBee, and Z-Wave standards

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Two-Way Communication

Short-Range Wireless: Wi-Fi b, a, g, & n for local area networks (LANs)

• Named for variations on the IEEE 802.11 standard
• Data ranges: 11 megabits per second up to 228 feet
• Wireless devices must use the same communications standard to communicate. Many products conform to the 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, or 802.11n wireless standards. People have Wi-Fi networks in their homes, and go online through wireless hot spots at cafes and other establishments, including airports and hotels.
• Be sure the Wi-Fi connection is secure against cyberspying. Also, Wi-Fi connections can be made without your knowledge, so disable your Wi-Fi software, instead of leaving it on to auto connect, whenever you’re not using it. This can keep you from unknowingly connecting to a fraudulent network.
• Use cellphone security software!
• WiMax is similar to Wi-Fi but has a greater range (10 – 30 miles).

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Wi-Fi setup in a restaurant

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Short-Range Wireless: Two-Way Communication (continued)

• Personal Area Wireless
• Bluetooth
• Short-range wireless standard to link cellphones, computers, and peripherals at distances usually up to 33 ft.
• Often used with headsets
• Transmits up to 24 Mbps per second
• When Bluetooth devices come into range of each other, they negotiate. If they have information to exchange, they form a temporary wireless network.

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Short-Range Wireless: Two-Way Communication (continued)

• Personal Area Wireless (continued)
• Ultra Wideband (UWB)
• Operates in 480 megabits - 1.6 gigabits per second, range up to 30 ft.
• Uses a low power source to send out millions of bursts of radio waves each second
• Wireless USB
• USB is the most used interface on PCs
• Range of 32 ft. and maximum data rate of 110 - 480 megabits per second; used in game controllers, printers, scanners, digital cameras, MP3 players, hard disks, and flash drives

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Short-Range Wireless: Two-Way Communication (continued)

• Short-Range Wireless for Home
• Insteon
• Combines electronic power line and wireless technology
• Can send data at 13.1 kilobits per second with 150 ft. range
• ZigBee
• Entirely wireless sensor technology
• Can send data at 128 kilobits per second with 250 ft. range
• Z-Wave
• Entirely wireless power-efficient technology
• Can send data at 127 kilobits per second to range of 100 ft.

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UNIT 6B: Cyberthreats: Trolls, Spies, & Hackers & Thieves

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The ongoing dilemma of the Digital Age is balancing convenience against security.

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• Security consists of safeguards for protecting information technology against unauthorized access, system failures, and disasters that can result in damage or loss.

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6.5 Cyberintruders

Trolls, Spies, Hackers, & Thieves

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• Trolls aren’t necessarily destructive, but they can be disruptive on online comment boards. A troll is a person who posts intentionally offensive, incendiary, or off-topic comments online, to upset people.
• Many companies have extensive data-collection efforts that constantly track (spy on) our personal activities.

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Malicious hackers break into computers for malicious purposes.

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• Script kiddies are technically unsophisticated teenagers who use downloadable software for perform break-ins.
• Hacktivists are hacker activists who break into systems for a political or a socially motivated purpose.
• Black-hat hackers break into computers to steal or destroy information or to use it for illegal profit.
• Cyberterrorists attack computer systems so as to bring physical, political or financial harm to groups, companies, or nations.
• Benign hackers (thrill-seeker hackers) illegally access computer systems simply for the challenge of it, not to damage or steal anything; their reward is the achievement of breaking in.
• Benevolent hackers (ethical hackers or white-hat hackers) are usually computer professionals who break into computer systems and networks with the knowledge of their owners to expose security flaws that can then be fixed.

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Thieves may be a company’s employees or suppliers or professionals.

• Employees
• Outside partners & suppliers
• Hardware thieves
• Con artists, scammers, & counterfeiters

Introduction to Information Technology

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6.6 Cyberattacks & Malware

Introduction to Information Technology

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• Networks and computer systems are susceptible to attacks by all kinds of malware.
• Some common cyberthreats are denial-of-service attacks; viruses; worms; Trojan horses; rootkits and backdoors; blended threats; zombies; ransomware; and time, logic, and email bombs.

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Cyberthreats:

• Denial of Service Attack
• Consists of making repeated requests of a computer or network device, thereby overloading it and denying access to legitimate users.
• Used to target particular companies or individuals.
• Virus
• Deviant program that hides in a file or a program on a disk, flash memory drive, in an e-mail, or in a web link and that causes unexpected effects such as destroying or corrupting data.
• Usually attached to an executable file that you must run or open (to activate the virus).

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Cyberthreats (continued)

• Worms
• A program that copies itself repeatedly into a computer’s memory or disk drive.
• May copy itself so much it crashes the infected computer.
• Trojan Horses
• Programs that pretend to be a useful program such as a free game or a screensaver but that carry viruses or malicious instructions that damage your computer or install a backdoor or spyware.
• Backdoors and spyware allow others to access your computer without your knowledge.

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Introduction to Information Technology

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Cyberthreats (continued)

• Rootkits
• In many computer operating systems, the “root” is an account for system administration. A “kit” is the malware secretly introduced into the computer. A rootkit gives an attacker “super powers” over computers—for example, the ability to steal sensitive personal information.
• Blended Threats
• A blended threat is a more sophisticated attack that bundles some of the worst aspects of viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and other malware into one single threat. Blended threats can use server and Internet vulnerabilities to initiate, then transmit and also spread an attack. Blended threats are designed to use multiple modes of transport—email, flash drives, networks, and so on.

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Introduction to Information Technology

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Cyberthreats (continued)

• Zombies & Bots
• A botmaster uses malware to hijack hundreds to many thousands of computers and is able to remotely control them all, including the ability to update the malware and to introduce other programs such as spyware. Hijacked computers are called zombies.
• A botnet (robot network) is a network of computers in which each computer has been implanted with instructions to wait for commands from the person controlling the botnet.
• Ransomeware
• A botnet may be used to install ransomeware, which holds the data on a computer or the use of the computer hostage until a payment is made. Ransomware encrypts the target’s files, and the attacker tells the victim to make a payment of a specified amount to a special account to receive the decryption key.

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• Time, Logic, & Email Bombs: A time bomb is malware programmed to “go off” at a particular time or date. A logic bomb is “detonated” when a specific event occurs—for example, all personnel records are erased when an electronic notation is made that a particular person was fired. Email bombs overwhelm a person’s email account by surreptitiously subscribing it to dozens or even hundreds of mailing lists.
• Phone Malware: Worms and viruses and other malware are attacking smartphones. The most common type of cellphone infection occurs when a cellphone downloads an infected file from a PC or the Internet, but phone-to-phone viruses are also on the rise.
• Infected files usually show up disguised as applications such as games, security patches, add-on functionalities, and free stuff. Future possibilities include cellphone spyware—so someone can see every number you call and listen to your conversations—and viruses that steal financial information, which will become more serious as smartphones are used as common payment devices.

Introduction to Information Technology

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Cyberthreats (continued)

• Cellphone Malware
• Spread via Internet downloads, MMS attachments, and Bluetooth transfers
• Usually show up disguised as applications such as games, security patches, add-on functionalities, erotica, and free programs
• Protect your phone:
• Turn off Bluetooth discoverable mode
• Check security updates to learn about filenames to watch out for
• Install security software

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Introduction to Information Technology

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Cyberthreats (continued)

• How they spread
• Via e-mail attachments
• By infected disks and flash drives
• By clicking on infiltrated websites
• By downloading infected files from websites
• Through infiltrated Wi-Fi hotspots
• From one infected PC on a LAN to another
• What can you do about it?
• Install antivirus and firewall software

and subscribe to the manufacturer’s automatic antivirus

update service

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Online Safety

• Use antivirus software, and keep it current
• Install a firewall to monitor network traffic and filter out undesirable types of traffic and undesirable sites
• Don’t use the same password for multiple sites
• Don’t give out any password information
• Use robust passwords:
• Minimum 8 characters with letters, numbers, characters
• 4cats is not a good password; f0UrK@tTz is safer
• Use biometric identification
• Use encryption

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• Online Safety (continued)
• Install antispyware software
• Encrypt financial and personal records so only you can read them
• Back up your data, so if your PC is attacked and must be reformatted, you can restore your data
• Never download from a website you don’t trust
• Consider biometric authentication

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Online Safety (continued)

• Encryption
• Process of altering readable data into unreadable form to prevent unauthorized access
• Uses powerful mathematical ciphers to create coded messages that are difficult to break
• Unencrypted messages are known as plain text
• Encrypted text is known as cybertext
• You use an encryption key to encrypt and decrypt codded messages

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Introduction to Information Technology

© 2015 by McGraw-Hill Education. This proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part.

6.7 Concerns about Privacy & Identity Theft

Introduction to Information Technology

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• The proliferation of networks and databases have put privacy under great pressure.
• Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information about themselves.
• Some threats to privacy:
• Name migration
• Résumé rustling & online snooping
• Government prying & spying

Introduction to Information Technology

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• Identity (ID) theft, or theft of identity (TOI), is a crime in which thieves hijack your name and identity and use your information and credit rating to get cash or buy things.
• Wallet or purse theft
• Mail theft
• Mining the trash
• Telephone solicitation
• Insider access to database
• Outsider access to database

Introduction to Information Technology

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• If ID theft happens, contact:
• Credit card companies
• Your bank
• Department of Automotive Vehicles
• Utility companies
• Phone companies
• Local police
• Federal Trade Commission
• Other organizations you belong to

Introduction to Information Technology

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