AP Government Review

Answering MCQs

• Read the WHOLE question
• Turn EXCEPT questions turn into T/F questions
• If you are a more deliberate test taker, skip stimulus-based questions and return if time
• Leave blank ONLY IF you can’t eliminate even one option

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Answering the Free Response Questions

• READ the question very carefully.
• FRQs usually require several general IDs (Identify, Define, List )and then elaboration (Explain, Discuss, Analyze, Describe). Brainstorm to find the best opportunities to earn points and the easiest examples to explain. Don’t just take the first that come to mind. If there is a term you must demonstrate that you know what it means (ex., mandate).
• DO I NEED AN INTRO?
• You will only need a thesis on questions that require you to take a definitive stand on an issue. DON’T write a fluff intro, but do include definitions.
• FORMAT:
• LABEL each section (with numbers & letters from the question).
• GUESS if needed. There is no penalty for including incorrect information.
• If you are more comfortable writing a traditional essay – write an essay.
• RE-READ YOUR ANSWERS:
• If you think of an additional point or forgot to reference the question add the information and arrow it into the right spot.
• SPARE TIRES
• If the question asks for two examples, you can provide the required two PLUS a third. AP Readers are required to read all three and give you credit for the best two. But if it asks for the only two of something, you will be penalized for including more.

Unit 1: �Constitutional Underpinnings (5-15%)

• Considerations that influenced the formulation and adoption of the Constitution
• Separation of powers
• Federalism
• Theories of democratic government

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Introduction

Voter Participation

The Policymaking System

• The process by which policy comes into being and evolves over time.
• Linkage Institutions
• Parties, elections, media, interest groups
• Policymaking Institutions
• Legislature, executive, courts, bureacracy

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Theories of U.S. Democracy

• Pluralist Theory
• Competition among groups for preferred policies
• Groups will work together
• Public interest will prevail
• Elite and Class Theory
• Societies are divided along class lines and an upper-class elite will rule
• Not all groups are equal
• Policies benefit those with money / power
• Hyperpluralism
• Groups are so strong that government is weakened
• Too many ways for groups to control policy
• Confusing / contradictory policies

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The Origins of the Constitution

• The English Heritage: The Power of Ideas
• John Locke’s influence
• Natural rights
• Consent of the governed
• Limited Government

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• Thomas Hobbes Influence
• Man is nasty, brutish, and short; Prone to violence
• Government exists to protect humans security and order

The Government That Failed

• Economic Turmoil
• States had different currencies
• States had laws that favored debtors
• Shays’ Rebellion
• A series of attacks on courthouses by a small band of farmers led by Revolutionary War Captain Daniel Shays to block foreclosure proceedings.
• Articles of Confederation
• Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, & independence
• Unicameral Congress (w/one vote per state)
• No Executive
• No Federal Judiciary (courts @ state level)

The Agenda in Philadelphia

• The Equality Issues
• Equality and Representation of the States
• New Jersey Plan
• Virginia Plan
• Connecticut Compromise
• Slavery
• Political Equality? (Women?, Property Owners?)----needed a “stake in society”

The Agenda in Philadelphia

• The Individual Rights Issues
• Some were written into the Constitution:
• Writ of habeas corpus
• No bills of attainder
• No ex post facto laws
• Religious qualifications for holding office prohibited
• Strict rules of evidence for conviction of treason
• Right to trial by jury in criminal cases
• Some were not specified
• Freedom of speech / expression
• Rights of the accused

The Madisonian Model

• Limiting Majority Control
• Separation of Powers
• Checks and Balances
• Federal System

Figure 2.3

Federalist Papers

#10 – Factions

• Factions are bad…but in a Democracy they are inevitable
• They check and balance each other…no one faction can grow too powerful
• Large Republic is best to control dangers of factions

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#51 – Checks & Balances

• “If men were angels, no government would be necessary – you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place, oblige it to control itself.”
• Ambition must be made to counteract ambition
• SEPERATION OF POWERS; 3 BRANCHES OF GOVT

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Ratifying the Constitution

• Federalist Papers
• A collection of 85 articles written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison under the name “Publius” to defend the Constitution.
• Bill of Rights
• The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, drafted in response to some of the Anti-Federalist concerns about the lack of basic liberties.

John Marshall Super-Federalist

• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)
• Supremacy, implied powers, elastic clause
• Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
• Expanded commerce clause to navigation & beyond (“backdoor”)

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Constitutional Change

Figure 2.4

Constitutional Change

• The Informal Process of Change
• Judicial Review
• Power of courts to strike down laws or governmental actions (Marbury v. Madison)
• Changing Political Practice
• Ex., parties introduced, electoral college has become rubber stamp
• Technology
• Mass media, bureaucracy, atomic weapons, communications have changed the functioning of govenrnment
• Increasing Demands on Policymakers
• Superpower, huge budget increase power of the president

What Fractions Do I Need To Know?

• To make an Amendment (the most common way): 2/3 of Congress (both houses) and 3/4 of the state legislatures. This is hard. It's only happened 27 times.
• To pass a bill: Simple majority of the Congress (both houses).
• To override a presidential veto: 2/3 of both houses (very rarely accomplished).
• To ratify a treaty: 2/3 vote in the Senate is required
• To confirm a federal court judge, an appeals court judge, or a Supreme Court justice nominated by the POTUS: majority vote in the Senate.
• To confirm heads of bureaucratic agencies nominated by the POTUS: majority vote in the Senate.
• To report a bill out of a House or Senate committee or subcommittee: majority vote is necessary.

The Constitutional Basis of Federalism

The Constitutional Basis of Federalism

• States’ Obligations to Each Other
• Full Faith and Credit
• Each state must honor the laws and legal proceedings of other states, e.g., marriages, debts. (DOMA)
• Extradition
• Governors must return suspects to the states in which they allegedly committed their crimes.
• Privileges and Immunities
• Each state must grant to citizens of other states the same rights and privileges that they grant to their own citizens, i.e., states cannot unreasonably discriminate against citizens of other states.

Intergovernmental Relations

• Dual Federalism
• Definition: A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies.
• “layer cake federalism”
• Ended in the 1930’s
• Cooperative Federalism
• Definition: A system of government in which powers and policy assignments are shared between states and the national government.
• Shared costs, shared administration
• States follow federal guidelines
• “marble cake federalism”
• New Federalism / Devolution
• Shifting of some authority from national govt. back to the states.
• Associated with Nixon, Reagan, and esp. associated with 104th and 105th Republican Congress: "Devolution Revolution"
• Example: use of block grants in welfare reform bill of 1996.
• (Class of ‘07 termed this “cupcake federalism”)

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Intergovernmental Relations

• Federal Grants to State and Local Governments (Figure 3.1)

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Intergovernmental Relations

• Fiscal Federalism
• Categorical Grants (or Grants-in-Aid): Federal grants that can be used for specific purposes. They have strings attached.
• Project Grants: based on merit
• Formula Grants: amount varies based on formulas
• Block Grants: Federal grants given more or less automatically to support broad programs.
• The Scramble for Federal Dollars
• $400 billion in grants every year
• Universalism - a little something for everybody
• The Mandate Blues
• Mandates direct states or local governments to comply with federal rules under threat of penalties or as a condition of receipt of a federal grant.
• Unfunded mandates are requirements on state & local governments - but no money

Unit 2:�Political beliefs and behaviors (10-20%)

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• Beliefs that citizens hold about their government and its leaders
• Processes by which citizens learn about politics
• The nature, sources, and consequences of public opinion
• The ways in which citizens vote and otherwise participate in political life
• Factors that influence citizens to differ from one another in terms of political beliefs and behaviors

The American People

• The Regional Shift
• Reapportionment: The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives every 10 years on the basis of the results of the census.

Figure 6.2

How Americans Learn About Politics: Political Socialization

• Political Socialization:
• “…the process through which and individual acquires [their] particular political orientation”
• The Process of Political Socialization
• The Family
• Time & emotional commitment
• Political leanings of children often mirror their parent’s leanings
• The Mass Media
• Generation gap in TV news viewing
• School / Education
• Used by government to socialize the young into the political culture
• Education produces better jobs and a more positive view of government

How American Learn About Politics: Political Socialization

• Turnout by Age, 2000 (Figure 6.3)

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• Aging increases political participation and strength of party attachment

What Americans Value: Political Ideologies

• Political Ideology:
• A coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose.
• Who Are the Liberals and Conservatives?
• Views change over time
• Currently about 37% conservative, 23% liberal, 40% moderate
• Do People Think in Ideological Terms?
• Ideologues: think in ideological terms - 12% of the population
• Group Benefits: rely on party labels - 42% of the population
• Nature of the Times: current times are good or bad - 24% of the population
• No issue content: based on personalities - 22% of the population

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How Americans Participate in Politics

• Class, Inequality, and Participation

Figure 6.5

How American Elections Work

• Initiative Petition:
• Voters in some states propose legislation to be voted on.
• Requires a specific number of signatures to be placed on the ballot.
• Can still be voted down by the people.
• Referendum:
• Voters are given the chance to approve or disapprove a legislative act, bond issue, or constitutional amendment proposed by the legislature.

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Whether to Vote: A Citizen’s First Choice

• Deciding Whether to Vote
• U.S. typically has low voter turnouts.
• Some argue it is a rational choice to not vote.
• Political Efficacy: The belief that one’s political participation really matters.
• Civic Duty: The belief the in order to support democratic government, a citizen should always vote.
• Who Votes?
• Education: More education = more likely to vote. Most important factor.
• Age: Older = more likely to vote.
• Race: Caucasian = more likely to vote. BUT, other ethnicities are higher with comparable education.
• Gender: Female = more likely to vote.
• Marital Status: Married = more likely to vote.
• Union Membership: = more likely to vote.
• Traits are cumulative - possessing several adds up.

Unit 3: Political parties, interest groups, and mass media (10-20%)

• Political parties and elections (including their functions, organization, historical development, and effects on the political process)
• Interest groups (including PACs)
• The range of interests that are or are not represented
• The activities of interest groups
• The effects of interest groups on the political process
• The unique characteristics and roles of PACs in the political process
• The mass media
• The functions and structures of the media
• The impacts of media on politics���

The Mass Media

• Media Events:
• Events purposely staged for the media that nonetheless look spontaneous. Media events can be staged by almost anybody.
• Other items to consider:
• 60% presidential campaign spending is TV ads
• Image making / news management is important, especially for presidents
• Policy Agenda:
• The issues that attract the serious attention of public officials and other people actively involved in politics at the time.
• Policy Entrepreneurs:
• People who invest their political “capital” in an issue.
• All depend on good images and good will.

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The Meaning of Party

• Tasks of the Parties
• Linkage Institutions: The channels through which people’s concerns become political issues on the government’s policy agenda.
• Parties Pick Candidates
• Parties Run Campaigns
• Parties Give Cues to Voters
• Parties Articulate Policies
• Parties Coordinate Policymaking
• Party identification is a citizen’s self-proclaimed preference for one party or the other.
• Ticket-splitting:
• Voting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices.
• Ticket-splitting has become the norm in American voting behavior.

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Party Eras in �American History

• Party Eras
• Historical periods in which a majority of voters cling to the party in power.
• Critical Election
• An electoral “earthquake” where new issues and new coalitions emerge.
• Party Realignment
• The displacement of the majority party by the minority party, usually during a critical election.

Third Parties: Their Impact on American Politics

• Political parties other than Democrat or Republican
• Rarely win elections
• Third parties bring new groups and ideas into politics
• Two-party system discourages extreme views

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The Party Organizations: From the Grass Roots to Washington

• The 50 State Party Systems
• Closed primaries: voters must be registered with their party in advance and can only vote for that party
• Open primaries: voters decide on election day which party to participate in, and then only that party
• Blanket primaries: voters get a list of all candidates and can vote for one name for each office, regardless of party label
• State party organizations are on an upswing in terms of headquarters and budgets.
• The National Party Organizations
• National Convention: The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and the party’s platform.
• National Committee: One of the institutions that keeps the party operating between conventions.
• National Chairperson: Responsible for day-to-day activities of the party.

The Nomination Game

• Competing for Delegates
• Evaluating the Primary and Caucus System
• Disproportionate attention to the early ones.
• Prominent politicians find it difficult to make time to run.
• Money plays too big a role.
• Participation in primaries and caucuses is low and unrepresentative.
• The system gives too much power to the media.

Money and Campaigning

• The Maze of Campaign Finance Reforms
• Federal Election Campaign Act (1974)
• Created the FEC to administer campaign finance laws for federal elections.
• Created the Presidential Election Campaign Fund.
• Provided partial public financing for presidential primaries (matching funds).
• Provided full public financing for major party candidates in the general election.
• Required full disclosure.
• Limited Contributions.
• The Proliferation of PACs
• Definition: Created by law in 1974 to allow corporations, labor unions and others to donate money to campaigns.
• As of 2004 there were 3,868 PACs.
• PACs contributed over $258 million to congressional candidates in 2002.
• Donate to candidates who support their issue, regardless of party affiliation
• Not sufficient data that PACs “buy” candidates

The Impact of Campaigns

• Campaigns have three effects on voters:
• Reinforcement, Activation, Conversion
• Mostly, they only reinforce & activate
• Selective perception: pay attention to things we agree with.
• Party identification still has an affect
• Incumbents start with a substantial advantage

The Last Battle: The Electoral College

• How it works today:
• Each state has as many votes as it does Representatives and Senators.
• Winner of popular vote typically gets ALL the Electoral College votes.
• Electors meet in December, votes are reported by the vice president in January.
• If no candidate gets 270 votes (a majority), the House of Representatives votes for president, with each state getting ONE vote.

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The Role and Reputation of Interest Groups

• Defining Interest Groups
• An organization of people with shared policy goals entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals. Interest groups pursue their goals in many arenas.
• Political Parties fight election battles, Interest Groups don’t - but they may choose sides.
• Interest Groups are policy specialists, Political Parties are policy generalists.

Subgovernments or Iron Triangles

• Subgovernments consist of a network of interest groups, congressional committees, and bureaucracies that exercise a great deal of control over specific policy areas, especially relating to a particular industry.
• Policies are often at odds with consumers’ needs.
• With more interest groups getting involved, these subgovernments may be dissolving to be replaced by wider issue networks that focus on more policies than regulation.

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Unit 2: Institutions of National Government (30-35%)

• The Congress, the presidency, the bureaucracy, and the federal courts
• The major formal and informal institutional arrangements of powers
• Relationships among these four institutions
• Links between these institutions and political parties, interest groups, the media, subnational governments, and public opinion��

The Representatives and Senators

Congressional Elections

• Who Wins Elections?
• Incumbent: Those already holding office.

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Figure 12.1

Congressional Elections

• The Advantages of Incumbents
• Advertising:
• The goal is to be visible to your voters.
• Frequent trips home & newsletters are used.
• Credit Claiming:
• Service to individuals in their district.
• Casework: specifically helping constituents get what they think they have a right to.
• Pork Barrel: federal projects, grants, etc. made available in a congressional district or state.
• Position Taking:
• Portray themselves as hard working, dedicated individuals.
• Occasionally take a partisan stand on an issue.
• Weak Opponents:
• Most opponents are inexperienced in politics.
• Most opponents are unorganized and underfunded.
• Campaign Spending:
• Challengers need to raise large sums to defeat an incumbent.
• PACs give most of their money to incumbents.
• Does PAC money “buy” votes in Congress?

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How Congress is Organized to Make Policy

• The House
• 435 members, 2 year terms of office.
• Initiates all revenue bills, more influential on budget.
• House Rules Committee
• Limited debates.

• The Senate
• 100 members, 6 year terms of office.
• Gives “advice & consent”, more influential on foreign affairs.
• Unlimited debates. (filibuster)

From Table 12.3

• American Bicameralism
• Bicameral: Legislature divided into two houses.

How Congress is Organized to Make Policy

• The House
• Lead by Speaker of the House - elected by House members.
• Presides over House.
• Major role in committee assignments and legislation.
• Assisted by majority leader and whips.

• The Senate
• Formally lead by Vice President (= president of the Senate).
• Actually lead by Majority Leader - president pro tempore - chosen by party members.
• Assisted by whips.
• Must work with Minority leader.

• Congressional Leadership

The Committees and Subcommittees

• Four types of committees:
• Standing committees: subject matter committees handle different policy areas.
• Joint committees: few policy areas- made up of House & Senate members.
• Conference committees: resolve differences in House and Senate bills.
• Select committees: created for a specific purpose.

The Congressional Process

The Congressional Process

• Party, Constituency, and Ideology
• Party Influence: Party leaders cannot force party members to vote a particular way, but many do vote along party lines.
• Constituency versus Ideology: Most constituents are uninformed about their member. It is difficult for constituents to influence their member, but on controversial issues members cannot ignore constituents.
• Lobbyists and Interest Groups
• There are several thousand lobbyists trying to influence Congress - the bigger the issue, the more lobbyists will be working on it.
• Lobbyists can be ignored, shunned and even regulated by Congress.
• Ultimately, it is a combination of lobbyists and others that influence members of Congress.

Pork & Earmarking

• pork barrel politics describes government spending that is intended to benefit constituents of a politician in return for their political support
• earmarking appropriates money to be spent on specific named projects
• The vast majority of earmarks are not controversial, but some become controversial for their cost or the perceived frivolous nature of the project.
• In 2005, $223 million was earmarked by Ted Stevens (R-AK), to construct a bridge nicknamed the “Bridge to Nowhere,” to connect an Alaskan town of 8,900 to an island of 50 inhabitants.
• Total earmarks for 2005: 15,000, costing $47 billion.
• On January 5, 2007, the House of Representatives passed a rule requiring congress members to attach their names to their earmarks and certify that they have no financial interest in the provisions. On January 16, the Senate passed a similar measure.

The Presidents

• Who They Are
• Formal Requirements:
• Must be 35 years old
• Must be a natural-born citizen
• Must have resided in U.S. for 14 years
• Informal “Requirements”:
• White, Male, Protestant (except one)
• All manner of professions, but mostly political ones (former state governors, for example)

The Presidents: How They Got There

• Elections: The Normal Road to the White House
• Once elected, the president gets a term of four years.
• In 1951, the 22^nd Amendment limited the number of terms to two.
• Most Presidents have been elected to office.
• Succession and Impeachment
• Vice-President succeeds if the president leaves office due to death, resignation, or removal.
• Impeachment is investigated by the House, and if impeached, tried by the Senate with the Chief Justice presiding.
• Only two presidents have been impeached: A. Johnson & Clinton - neither was convicted.
• The 25^th Amendment clarifies what happens if the president becomes disabled.

Presidential Powers

From Table 13.3

Running the Government:�The Chief Executive

• The Executive Office
• Made up of several policymaking and advisory bodies
• Three principle groups: NSC, CEA, OMB

Figure 13.1

Presidential Leadership of Congress: The Politics of Shared Powers

• Chief Legislator
• Veto: Sending a bill back to Congress with his reasons for rejecting it. Can be overridden.
• Pocket Veto: Letting a bill die by not signing it - only works when Congress is adjourned.
• Line Item Veto: The ability to veto parts of a bill. Some state governors have it, but not the president.
• Legislative Skills
• Variety of forms: bargaining, making personal appeals, consulting with Congress, setting priorities, etc.
• Most important is bargaining with Congress.
• Presidents can use their “honeymoon” period to their advantage to get legislation passed.
• Nation’s key agenda builder

Presidential Leadership of Congress: The Politics of Shared Powers

• Party Leadership
• The Bonds of Party
• The psychological bond of being in the president’s party
• Party Slippage
• Presidents cannot always count on party support, especially on controversial issues and when coattails are no longer helpful
• Leading the Party
• Presidents can offer party candidates support and punishment by withholding favors.
• Presidential coattails occur when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the president’s party because they support the president.

The President and National Security Policy

• Chief Diplomat
• Negotiates treaties with other countries
• Treaties must be approved by the Senate (advise & consent)
• Use executive agreements to take care of routine matters with other countries
• May negotiate for peace between other countries
• Lead U.S. allies in defense & economic issues
• Commander in Chief
• Writers of the constitution wanted civilian control of the military
• Presidents often make important military decisions
• Presidents command a standing military and nuclear arsenal - unthinkable 200 years ago

The President and National Security Policy

• War Powers
• Constitution gives Congress the power to declare war, but presidents can commit troops and equipment in conflicts
• War Powers Resolution was intended to limit the president’s use of the military - but may be unconstitutional
• Presidents continue to test the limits of using the military in foreign conflicts
• Crisis Manager
• A crisis is a sudden, unpredictable, and potentially dangerous event.
• The role the president plays can help or hurt the presidential image.
• With current technology, the president can act much faster than Congress to resolve a crisis.
• Working with Congress
• President has lead role in foreign affairs.
• Presidents still have to work with Congress for support and funding of foreign policies.

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Power from the People:�The Public Presidency

• Going Public
• Public support is perhaps the greatest source of influence a president has.
• Public approval gives the president leverage, not command
• Presidential appearances are staged to get the public’s attention.
• As head of state, presidents often perform many ceremonial functions, which usually result in favorable press coverage.
• Mandates
• Perception that the voters strongly support the president’s character and policies
• Mandates are infrequent, but presidents may claim a mandate anyway

Power from the People:�The Public Presidency

• Presidential Approval
• Receives much effort by the White House
• Product of many factors: predispositions, “honeymoon”
• Changes can highlight good / bad decisions

Figure 13.3

Introduction

• Budget:
• A policy document allocating burdens (taxes) and benefits (expenditures).
• Deficit:
• An excess of federal expenditures over federal revenues.
• Debt:
• The sum of all the borrowed money that is still outstanding (currently over 8 trillion dollars).
• Expenditures:
• What the government spends money on.
• Revenues:
• Sources of money for the government.

Sources of Federal Revenue

Sources of Federal Revenue

Figure 14.2

Sources of Federal Revenue

• Taxes and Public Policy
• Tax Loopholes: Tax break or benefit for a few people - not much money is lost.
• Tax Expenditures: Special exemptions, exclusions or deductions - lots of money is lost (= subsidies).
• Tax Reduction: The general call to lower taxes.
• Tax Reform: Rewriting the taxes to change the rates and who pays them.

Federal Expenditures

Figure 14.3

Federal Expenditures

• Trends in National Defense Spending (Figure 14.4)

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Federal Expenditures

• “Uncontrollable” Expenditures
• Spending determined by the number of recipients, not a fixed dollar figure.
• Mainly entitlement programs where the government pays known benefits to an unknown number of recipients - Social Security.
• The only way to control the expenditures is to change the rules.

Federal Expenditures

How Bureaucracies Are Organized

• The Cabinet Departments
• 13 Cabinet departments headed by a secretary
• Department of Justice headed by Attorney General
• Each has its own budget, staff and policy areas
• Status as a cabinet department can be controversial.
• The Regulatory Agencies
• Independent Regulatory Agency: Responsible for some sector of the economy making rules and judging disputes to protect the public interest.
• Headed by a commission of 5-10 people.
• Rule making is an important function watched by interest groups and citizens alike.
• Concern over “capture” of the agencies (where agencies established to regulate industries end up being influenced and controlled by the companies the agencies were supposed to regulate).

Iron Triangles

Figure 15.5

How Bureaucracies Are Organized

• The Government Corporations
• Business like – provide services like private companies and typically charge for their services.
• Postal Service, Amtrak are examples
• Independent Executive Agencies
• The agencies that don’t fit in anywhere else.
• GSA (General Services Administration) and NASA are examples
• Bureaucracy and Democracy
• Presidents Try to Control the Bureaucracy
• Appoint the right people.
• Issue executive orders.
• Tinker with the agency’s budget.
• Reorganize an agency.
• Congress Tries to Control the Bureaucracy
• Influence presidential appointments.
• Tinker with the agency’s budget.
• Hold hearings.
• Rewrite the legislation or make it more detailed.

Unit 5: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights (5-15%)

• The development of civil liberties and civil rights by judicial interpretation
• Knowledge of substantive rights and liberties
• The impact of the Fourteenth Amendment on the constitutional development of rights and liberties

The Nature of the Judicial System

• Two types of cases:
• Criminal Law: The government charges an individual with violating one or more specific laws.
• Civil Law: The court resolves a dispute between two parties and defines the relationship between them.
• Most cases are tried and resolved in state courts, not federal courts.
• Participants in the Judicial System
• Litigants
• Plaintiff - the party bringing the charge
• Defendant - the party being charged
• Jury - the people (normally 12) who often decide the outcome of a case
• Standing to sue - plaintiffs have a serious interest in the case.
• Justiciable disputes – A case must be capable of being settled as a matter of law.

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The Structure of the �Federal Judicial System

The Politics of Judicial Selection

• Participants in the Judicial System
• Groups
• Use the courts to try to change policies.
• Amicus Curiae briefs are used to influence the courts.
• Attorneys
• Legal Services Corporation - lawyers to assist the poor
• Access to quality lawyers is not equal.
• The Lower Courts
• Senatorial Courtesy:
• Unwritten tradition where a judge is not confirmed if a senator of the president’s party from the state where the nominee will serve opposes the nomination.
• Has the effect of the president approving the Senate’s choice
• President has more influence on appellate level

The Courts as Policymakers

• Accepting Cases
• Use the “rule of four” to choose cases.
• Issues a writ of certiorari to call up the case.
• Very few cases are actually accepted each year.

Figure 16.4

The Courts as Policymakers

• Making Decisions, continued
• Dissenting opinions are written by justices who oppose the majority.
• Concurring opinions are written in support of the majority but stress a different legal basis.
• Stare decisis: to let the previous decision stand unchanged.
• Precedents: How similar past cases were decided.
• Original Intent: The idea that the Constitution should be viewed according to the original intent of the framers.
• Judicial activism: theory that judges should make bolder policy decisions to alleviate pressing needs, especially for those who are weak politically.

The Courts as Policymakers

• Implementing Court Decisions
• Must rely on others to carry out decisions
• Interpreting population: understand the decision
• Implementing population: the people who need to carry out the decision – may be disagreement
• Consumer population: the people who are affected (or could be) by the decision

The Bill of Rights–�Then and Now

• Civil Liberties
• Definition: The legal constitutional protections against the government.
• The Bill of Rights and the States
• The Bill of Rights is the first 10 amendments.
• Written to restrict the national government.
• Most are “incorporated” into state and local laws.

The Bill of Rights—Then and Now

14th Amendment’s Due Process and�Equal Protection Clauses

• “No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of the citizens of the US nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor (shall any state) deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the law.”
• “Selective” Incorporation Theory: On a case-by-case basis the SCOTUS has nationalized of the Bill of Rights
• Once an amendment has been incorporated, you are protected from both the federal and the state governments

Freedom of Religion

• The Establishment Clause
• “Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion.”
• The Free Exercise Clause
• Prohibits government from interfering with the practice of religion
• Some religious practices may conflict with other rights, and then be denied or punished

Freedom of Expression

• Prior Restraint
• Definition: A government preventing material from being published. Censorship.
• May be permissible during wartime.
• May be punished after something is published.
• Free Speech and Public Order
• Limited if it presents a “clear and present danger”
• Permissible to advocate the violent overthrow of government in abstract, but not to incite anyone to imminent lawless action
• Limited if on private property, like a shopping center
• Free Press and Fair Trials
• The public has a right to know what happens.
• The press’ own information may not be protected.
• Shield laws
• Obscenity
• No clear definition on what constitutes obscenity.
• Miller v. California stated that materials were obscene if the work:
• appeals “to a prurient interest in sex”
• showed “patently offensive” sexual conduct
• lacks “serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value”
• Local areas make their own decisions on obscenity

Freedom of Expression

• Libel and Slander
• Libel: The publication of false or malicious statements that damage someone’s reputation.
• Slander: The same thing, only spoken instead of printed.
• Different standards for private individuals and public (politicians, celebrities) individuals
• Difficult to prove
• Symbolic Speech
• Definition: Nonverbal communication, such as burning a flag or wearing an armband.
• Generally protected along with verbal speech.
• Commercial Speech
• Generally the most restricted and regulated form of speech (FTC).
• Regulation of the Public Airwaves
• Broadcast stations must follow FCC rules.
• Cable / satellite has blurred the lines.
• Freedom of Assembly
• Right to Assemble: Generally permissible, but must meet reasonable local standards.
• Balance between freedom to assemble and order in society.
• Right to Associate: Freedom to join groups / associations without government interference.

Defendants’ Rights

• Searches and Seizures
• Probable Cause: The situation occurring when the police have reason to believe that a person should be arrested.
• Unreasonable searches and seizures: Evidence is obtained in a haphazard or random manner.
• Exclusionary Rule: The rule that evidence, no matter how incriminating, cannot be introduced into trial if it was not constitutionally obtained.
• Self-Incrimination
• Definition: The situation occurring when an individual accused of a crime is compelled to be a witness against himself or herself in court.
• Fifth Amendment
• Miranda warnings
• Entrapments may be overturned
• The Right to Counsel
• Gideon v. Wainwrigt The state must provide lawyers in most criminal cases.
• Sixth Amendment
• Trials
• Plea bargaining: An actual bargain between the prosecution and defense (which the judge is not required to follow).
• Juries generally consist of 12 people, but unanimity is not always needed to convict.
• Cruel and Unusual Punishment
• The Eighth Amendment forbids cruel and unusual punishment.
• The Death Penalty
• Varies from state to state
• Cannot be mandatory

The Right to Privacy

• Controversy over Abortion
• Roe v. Wade (1973)
• Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)
• Protections of those seeking an abortion
• Rights of protesters

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• Is There a Right to Privacy?
• Definition: The right to a private personal live free from the intrusion of government.
• Not explicitly stated in the Constitution
• Implied by the Fourth Amendment
• Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
• Very debatable

Figure 4.1

When should abortions be legal?

Civil Rights

• Civil Rights
• Definition: Policies designed to protect people against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by government officials or individuals.
• Racial Discrimination
• Gender Discrimination
• Discrimination based on age, disability, sexual orientation and other factors
• The Constitution and Inequality
• 14^th Amendment: “…equal protection of the laws.”

Race, the Constitution, and Public Policy

• The Era of Slavery
• Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
• The Civil War
• The Thirteenth Amendment
• The Era of Reconstruction and Resegregation
• Jim Crow laws
• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
• The Era of Civil Rights
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
• Court ordered integration and busing of students
• Civil Rights Act of 1964
• Made racial discrimination illegal in many areas
• Created EEOC
• Strengthened voting right legislation

Race, the Constitution, and Public Policy

• Other Minority Groups
• Native Americans
• Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez (1978)
• Hispanic Americans
• Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund
• Asian Americans
• Korematsu v. United States (1944)

Women, the Constitution, and Public Policy

• The Battle for the Vote
• Nineteenth Amendment: Extended suffrage to women in 1920.
• The “Doldrums”: 1920-1960
• Laws were designed to protect women, and protect men from competition with women.
• The Second Feminist Wave
• Reed v. Reed (1971)
• Craig v. Boren (1976)
• Draft is not discriminatory
• Women in the Workplace
• Wage Discrimination and Comparable Worth
• Women in the Military
• Sexual Harassment

Newly Active Groups Under the Civil Rights Umbrella

• Civil Rights and the Graying of America
• Civil Rights and People With Disabilities
• Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
• Gay and Lesbian Rights
• Bowers v. Hardwick (1986) upheld Georgia sodomy law
• Lawrence v. Texas (2003) overruled it, holding that such laws are unconstitutional

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Affirmative Action

• Definition:
• A policy designed to give special attention to or compensatory treatment of members of some previously disadvantaged group.
• A move towards equal results?
• Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)
• barred quotas
• Adarand Constructors v. Pena (1995)
• standard of “strict scrutiny," (narrowly tailored)
• Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)
• Struck down point system
• Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
• upheld law school affirmative action

Unit 6: Public policy (5-15%)

• Policy making in a federal system
• The formation of policy agenda
• The role of institutions in the enactment of policy
• The role of the bureaucracy and the courts in policy implementation and interpretation
• Linkages between policy processes and the following:
• Political institutions and federalism
• Political parties
• Interest groups
• Public opinion
• Elections

Government, Politics, and the Economy

• Economic Policy at Work: An Illustration
• Wal-Mart is the world’s largest company.
• Government Regulation and Business Practices
• Securities and Exchange Commission regulates stock fraud.
• Minimum wage: The legal minimum hourly wage for large employers.
• Labor union: An organization of workers intended to engage in collective bargaining.
• Collective bargaining: Negotiations between labor unions and management to determine pay and working conditions.
• Two Major Worries: Unemployment and Inflation
• Unemployment rate: Measured by the BLS, the proportion of the labor force actively seeking work, but unable to find jobs.
• Inflation: The rise in prices for consumer goods.
• Consumer Price Index: The key measure of inflation that relates the rise in prices over time.

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Policies for Controlling the Economy

• Monetary Policy and “the Fed” (Federal Reserve Board)
• The manipulation of the supply of money in private hands – too much cash and credit produces inflation.
• Money supply affects the rate of interest paid.
• Main policymaker is the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System – the “Fed.”
• The Feds instruments to influence the supply of money in circulation:
• Sets the federal funds rate
• Buys and sells government bonds
• Through the use of these actions, the Fed can affect the economy.
• Business and Public Policy
• Corporate Corruption and Concentration
• Increased incidence of bankruptcy and scandals.
• Increased number of corporate mergers
• Antitrust policy: A policy designed to ensure competition and prevent monopoly.
• Regulating and Benefiting Business
• Congress has taken steps to regulate accounting industry practices.
• The Securities and Exchange Commission regulates stock fraud
• Government may loan businesses money.
• Government collects data that business use.

What is Social Policy and Why is it so Controversial?

• Social welfare policies provide benefits to individuals, either through entitlements or means-testing.
• Entitlement programs: Government benefits that certain qualified individuals are entitled to by law, regardless of need.
• Means-tested programs: Government programs only available to individuals below a poverty line.
• Who’s Poor in America?
• Poverty Line: considers what a family must spend for an “austere” standard of living.
• In 2003 the poverty line for a family of three was $14,824.
• Many people move in and out of poverty in a year’s time.
• Feminization of poverty: high rates of poverty among unmarried women.

Income, Poverty, and Public Policy

• Who’s Poor in America?
• Poverty Line: considers what a family must spend for an “austere” standard of living
• 36.5 million Americans—about 12.3 percent—were poor in 2006
• Many people move in and out of poverty in a year’s time.
• Feminization of poverty: high rates of poverty among unmarried women

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Income, Poverty, and�Public Policy

• What Part Does Government Play?
• Taxation.
• Progressive tax: people with higher incomes pay a greater share.
• Proportional tax: all people pay the same share of their income.
• Regressive tax: opposite of a progressive tax
• Earned Income Tax Credit: “negative income tax” that provided income to very poor people.
• Government Expenditures.
• Transfer payments: benefits given by the government directly to individuals.
• Some transfer benefits are actual money.
• Other transfer benefits are “in kind” benefits where recipients get a benefit without getting actual money, such as food stamps.
• Some are entitlement programs, others are means-tested.

Helping the Poor? Social Policy and Poverty

• “Welfare” as We Knew it
• Social Security Act of 1935 was the first major step by the federal government to help protect people against absolute poverty.
• The Social Security Act set up AFDC, a national assistance program for poor children.
• President Johnson declared a “war on poverty” and created many new social welfare programs.
• President Reagan cut welfare benefits and removed people from benefit rolls.
• Conservatives argued that welfare programs discouraged the poor from solving their problems.
• Attitudes toward welfare became “race coded”, the belief that most people on welfare were African Americans.
• Ending Welfare as we Knew it: The Welfare Reforms of 1996
• Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act
• Each state to receive a fixed amount of money to run its own welfare programs
• People on welfare would have to find work within two years.
• Lifetime limit of five years placed on welfare.
• AFDC changed to Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)

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Living on Borrowed Time: Social Security

• The New Deal, the Elderly, and the Growth of Social Security
• Social Security has grown rapidly since 1935, adding Medicare in 1965.
• Employers and employees contribute to the Social Security Trust Fund.
• The Trust Fund is used to pay benefits.
• The ratio of workers to beneficiaries is narrowing. The Trust Fund will soon be in the red.
• The Future of Social Security
• The number of Social Security contributors (workers) is growing slowly, the number of recipients (retired) is growing rapidly.
• At some time, payouts will exceed income.
• Solutions of cutting benefits or raising taxes are hard choices.
• Republicans favor privatizing Social Security.

Health Care Policy

• The Health of Americans
• Americans generally lag behind in some key health statistics
• Specifically a lower life expectancy and higher infant mortality rate.
• The Cost of Health Care
• Americans spend more than any other country.
• Reasons for high costs: private insurance pays much of the cost, emphasis on new and expensive technology, increase in malpractice suits results in “defensive medicine.”
• Uneven Coverage, Uneven Care
• Health Insurance
• About 43 million Americans have no health insurance.
• Often linked to having a job - lose the job, lose the health insurance.
• Health insurance is closely tied to race and income.
• The Role of Government in Health Care
• Government in the United States has the smallest role.
• Medicare: provides hospitalization insurance for elderly and optional coverage for other medical expenses.
• Medicaid: public assistance program to provide health care for the poor. Paid for by national and state governments.

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Environmental Policy

• Environmental Policies in America
• Environmental Impacts.
• Environmental Impact Statements: report that specifies likely environmental impact of a proposed action - filed with the EPA.
• Used by environmental groups to challenge and delay projects they object to.
• Clean Air.
• Clean Air Act of 1970: reduce auto pollution.
• 1990 amendments allowed emissions trading.
• Environmental Policies in America
• Clean Water.
• Water Pollution Control Act of 1972: intended to clean up the nation’s rivers and lakes requiring the use of pollution control technology.
• Has helped reclaim numerous rivers and lakes since its passage.
• But it misses “runoff” pollution from city streets and other areas.

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Environmental Policy

• Environmental Policies in America
• Wilderness Preservation
• The U.S. is a world leader in wilderness preservation.
• The national parks and national forests may be restricted to keep them for future generations.
• Endangered Species
• Government protects those species listed as endangered - regardless of costs (Endangered Species Act).
• Exceptions may be made in some instances.
• Environmental Policies in America
• Toxic Wastes
• Superfund was created by Congress in 1980 to clean up hazardous waste sites.
• Has virtually eliminated haphazard dumping of toxic waste, but less successful in cleaning up existing waste.
• Nuclear waste presents a serious challenge.

Energy Policy

• Energy Sources and Energy Politics
• 87% of the nation’s energy comes from coal, oil and natural gas.
• Coal is the most abundant fuel, but also the dirtiest.
• Oil accounts for 40% of our energy, but creates a dependence on foreign (especially Middle East) sources.
• Most controversial energy source is nuclear.

The End