Assessment and evaluation
What is Assessment �As stated above, and according to Brown, (1990) assessment refers to a related series of measures used to determine a complex attribute of an individual or group of individuals. This involves gathering and interpreting information about student level of attainment of learning goals. Assessments also are used to identify individual student weaknesses and strengths so that educators can provide specialized academic support educational programming, or social services. In addition, assessments are developed by a wide array of groups and individuals, including teachers, district administrators,
universities, private companies, state departments of education, and groups that include a combination of these individuals and institutions. In classroom assessment, since teachers themselves develop, administer and analyze the questions, they are more likely to apply the results of the assessment to their own teaching. Therefore, it provides feedback on the effectiveness of instruction and gives students a measure of their progress. As Brown (1990) maintains, two major functions can be pointed out for classroom assessment: One is to show whether or not the learning has been successful, and the other one is to clarify the expectations of the teachers from the students (Brown, 1990). Assessment is a process that includes four basic components: �
1) Measuring improvement over time. �2) Motivating students to study. �3) Evaluating the teaching methods. �4) Ranking the students' capabilities in relation to the whole group evaluation.
first and foremost, assessment is important because it drives students learning (Brown 1990). Whether we like it or not, most students tend to focus their energies on the best or most expeditious way to pass their ‘tests.’ Based on this knowledge, we can use our assessment strategies to manipulate the kinds of learning that takes place. For example, assessment strategies that focus predominantly on recall of knowledge will likely promote superficial learning. On the other hand, if we choose assessment strategies that demand critical thinking or creative problem solving, we are likely to realize a higher level of student performance or achievement. In addition, good assessment can help students become more effective self-directed learners (Darling- Hammond 2006). As indicated above, motivating and directing learning is only one purpose of assessment. Well-designed assessment strategies also play a critical role in educational decision-making and are a vital component of ongoing quality improvement processes at the lesson, course and/or curriculum level.
Types and Approaches to Assessment �Numerous terms are used to describe different types to learner assessment. Although somewhat arbitrary, it is useful to these various terms as representing dichotomous poles (McAlpine, 2002). �
Formative <---------------------------------> Summative �Informal <---------------------------------> Formal �Continuous <----------------------------------> Final �Process <---------------------------------> Product �Divergent <---------------------------------> Convergent
Formative vs. Summative Assessment
�Formative assessment is designed to assist the learning process by providing feedback to the learner, which can be used to identify strengths and weakness and hence improve future performance. Formative assessment is most appropriate where the results are to be used internally by those involved in the learning process (students, teachers, curriculum developers). Summative assessment is used primarily to make decisions for grading or determine readiness for progression. Typically summative assessment occurs at the end of an educational activity and is designed to judge the learner’s overall performance. In addition to providing the basis for grade assignment, summative assessment is used to communicate students’ abilities to external stakeholders, e.g., administrators and employers (Darling-Hammond, 2006). �
3.4. Informal vs. Formal Assessment �
With informal assessment, the judgments are integrated with other tasks, e.g., lecturer feedback on the answer to a question or preceptor feedback provided while performing a bedside procedure. Informal assessment is most often used to provide formative feedback. As such, it tends to be less threatening and thus less stressful to the student. However, informal feedback is prone to high subjectivity or bias. Formal assessment occurs when students are aware that the task that they are doing is for assessment purposes, e.g., a written examination. Most formal assessments also are summative in nature and thus tend to have greater motivation impact and are associated with increased stress. Given their role in decision-making, formal assessments should be held to higher standards of reliability and validity than informal assessments (McAlpine 2002). �
Continuous vs. Final Assessment �
Continuous assessment occurs throughout a learning experience (intermittent is probably a more realistic term). Continuous assessment is most appropriate when student and/or instructor knowledge of progress or achievement is needed to determine the subsequent progression or sequence of activities (McAlpine 2002). Continuous assessment provides both students and teachers with the information needed to improve teaching and learning in process. Obviously, continuous assessment involves increased effort for both teacher and student. Final (or terminal) assessment is that which takes place only at the end of a learning activity. It is most appropriate when learning can only be assessed as a complete whole rather than as constituent parts. Typically, final assessment is used for summative decision-making. Obviously, due to its timing, final assessment cannot be used for formative purposes �(McAlpine 2002).
Process vs. Product Assessment �Process assessment focuses on the steps or procedures underlying a particular ability or task, i.e., the cognitive steps in performing a mathematical operation or the procedure involved in analyzing a blood sample. Because it provides more detailed information, process assessment is most useful when a student is learning a new skill and for providing formative feedback to assist in improving performance (McAlpine 2002). Product assessment focuses on evaluating the result or outcome of a process. Using the above examples, we would focus on the answer to the math computation or the accuracy of the blood test results. Product assessment is most appropriate for documenting proficiency or competency in a given skill, i.e., for summative purposes. In general, product assessments are easier to create than product assessments, requiring only a specification of the attributes of the final product (McAlpine 2002). �
3.7. Divergent vs. Convergent Assessment �Divergent assessments are those for which a range of answers or solutions might be considered correct. Examples include essay tests. Divergent assessments tend to be more authentic and most appropriate in evaluating higher cognitive skills. However, these types of assessment are often time consuming to evaluate and the resulting judgments often exhibit poor reliability. A convergent assessment has only one correct response (per item). Objective test items are the best example and demonstrate the value of this approach in assessing knowledge. Obviously, �convergent assessments are easier to evaluate or score than divergent assessments. Unfortunately, this “ease of use” often leads to their widespread application of this approach even when contrary to good assessment practices. Specifically, the familiarity and ease with which convergent assessment tools can be applied leads to two common evaluation fallacies: the Fallacy of False Quantification (the tendency to focus on what’s easiest to measure) and the Law of the Instrument Fallacy (molding the evaluation problem to fit the tool)
Functions of evaluations �Evaluation refers to a periodic process of gathering data and then analyzing or ordering it in such a way that the resulting information can be used to determine how effective your teaching or program is, and the extent to which it is achieving its stated objectives and anticipated results (Howard & Donaghue (2015). Teachers can and should conduct internal evaluations to get information about their programs, to know who passes and who fails so that they can make sound decisions about their practices. Internal evaluation should be conducted on an ongoing basis and applied conscientiously by teachers at every level of an institution in all program areas. In addition, all of the program's participants (managers, staff, and beneficiaries) should be involved in the evaluation process in appropriate ways. This collaboration helps ensure that the evaluation is fully participatory and builds commitment on the part of all involved to use the results to make critical program improvements (Howard & � Donaghue 2015). Although most evaluations are done internally, conducted by local stakeholders, there is still a need for larger-scale, external evaluations conducted periodically by individuals from outside the program or institution. Most often these
7 �external evaluations are required for funding and accreditation purposes or to answer �questions about the program's long-term impact by looking at changes in �demographic indicators such as graduation rate, changes n economy and other levels. �In addition, occasionally a teacher may be observed by an external stakeholder with �purpose of assessing programmatic or operating problems that have been identified �but that cannot be fully diagnosed or resolved through the findings of internal �evaluation
Principles of Evaluation �Here are some principles to consider for your own classroom summarised from (Weir & Roberts, 1994; Howard & Donaghue 2015; (Kellaghan & Stufflebean 2003): �Ø
Effective evaluation is a continuous, on-going process. Much more than determining the outcome of learning, it is rather a way of gauging learning over time. Learning and evaluation are never completed; they are always �evolving and developing. �
A variety of evaluative tools is necessary to provide the most accurate assessment of students' learning and progress. Dependence on one type of tool to the exclusion of others deprives students of valuable learning opportunities and robs you of measures that help both students and the overall program grow. �
Evaluation must be a collaborative activity between teachers and students. Students must be able to assume an active role in evaluation so they can begin to develop individual responsibilities for development and self-monitoring. �Evaluation needs to be authentic. It must be based on the natural activities and processes students do both in the classroom and in their everyday lives. For example, relying solely on formalized testing procedures might send a signal to children that learning is simply a search for “right answers.”
Key Differences Between Assessment and Evaluation �
The significant differences between assessment and evaluation are discussed in the points given below summarized from (Weir & Roberts, 1994; Howard & Donaghue 2015; (Kellaghan & Stufflebean 2003): �
2. Assessment is diagnostic in nature as it tends to identify areas of improvement. On the other hand, evaluation is judgmental, because it aims at providing an overall grade. �
3. The assessment provides feedback on performance and ways to enhance performance in future. As against this, evaluation ascertains whether the standards are met or not. �
4. The purpose of assessment is formative, i.e. to increase quality whereas evaluation is all about judging quality, therefore the purpose is summative. �
5. Assessment is concerned with process, while evaluation focuses on product. �
6. In an assessment, the feedback is based on observation and positive & negative points. In contrast to evaluation, in which the feedback relies on the level of quality as per set standard. �
7. In an assessment, the relationship between assessor and assessed is reflective, i.e. the criteria are defined internally. On the contrary, the evaluator and evaluate share a prescriptive relationship, wherein the standards are imposed externally. �
8. The criteria for assessment are set by both the parties jointly. As opposed to evaluation, wherein the criteria are set by the evaluator.