All views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

Who is Doing the Chores and Childcare in Dual-earner Couples during the COVID-19 Era of Working from Home?

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Sabrina Wulff Pabilonia (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics)�Victoria Vernon (SUNY Empire State College)

Victoria.Vernon@esc.edu

1 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Questions

• How do mothers and fathers working from home (WFH) spend their time compared to those working away from home (WAFH)?
• Did they share chores more equally in 2021 compared to 2015?
• Does parents’ time use when WFH vary by the WFH status of their partner?
• Do they share chores more equally when both parents WFH?
• How does having a child at home during the workday impact the time mothers and fathers spend on paid work, chores, and childcare?
• Any differences in time use for members of couples without children?

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2 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Hypotheses

• Parents who WFH will pick up chores and childcare and may work fewer paid hours.
• When both parents WFH, they will share chores and childcare more equally.
• If children are home during the workday, mothers’ time allocation will be affected more as primary caregivers.

3 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Percentage of Full 4h+ Workdays Worked from Home

• Massive increase in remote work in 2020
• 35.4% worked at home because of COVID-19 in last four weeks (May 2020 CPS)
• 37–45% of all jobs just prior to the pandemic could be done from home (Dingel and Neiman; Dey et al. 2021, 2022)
• Take-up of work from home was strongly correlated with “teleworkable” jobs.
• Workers save about 1h 15min on a workday by reducing commute and grooming activities (Vernon & Pabilonia 2022)
• Pandemic increased need for household-provided childcare and chores

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Source: American Time Use Survey

Background

4 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Percentage of Full Workdays Worked from Home

Source: American Time Use Survey 2019–21

Notes: Full workdays are those with at least four hours of work. The dashed line indicates missing data when diaries were not collected.

39.7%

5 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Percentage of Weekday Workdays Worked Exclusively from Home �by Parents Before and During the Pandemic

3.5-fold

6 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

7 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Key Takeaways

• Mothers spent less time on paid work when WFH alone.
• But not when their partner also WFH
• Mothers and fathers spent more time on childcare when WFH.
• Having a partner also WFH eased the childcare burden
• Especially for mothers, allowing them to maintain paid work hours
• Parents WFH with a child at home did a lot more childcare.
• Mothers did a lot of multitasking (combining paid work and childcare).
• Fathers did less multitasking when a partner WFH and a child is at home.
• Women without children also worked less when WFH alone.
• Men and women without children spent more time on chores when WFH alone than when WFH with their partner.

8 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Prior Findings on Time Use by Work Location

Pre-2020 (Carlson et al. 2021; Lyttelton et al. 2021; Pabilonia & Vernon 2022)

• Fathers, but not mothers, spend more time on primary childcare on weekdays when they WFH.
• Increasing telework could close the gender care gap.
• Mothers who work from home spend about a half an hour more time working with a child in their presence than do fathers.
• Women increase their household production on weekdays when they work at home, shifting it from weekends.

9 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Prior Findings on Time Use During COVID

US case (Heggeness 2020; Kalenkoski & Pabilonia 2022; Lyttelton et al. 2021; Zamarro & Prados 2021; Bauer et al. 2021; Adams-Prassl et al. 2020)

• In the initial months following the outbreak, mothers in two-parent households reduced their hours worked and increased childcare.
• In 2020, employed mothers of children under age 13 spent 2.8 hours more per weekday on childcare than employed fathers.
• Mothers of school-aged children reduced work hours, but having a teleworkable job mitigated some of the negative effects on mothers’ hours.
• Among parents who were WFH, mothers and fathers both spent about two hours per workday helping with homeschooling.

10 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Prior Findings on Time Use by the �Couple’s Joint Work Location Arrangement

• Dunatchik et al. (2021) – US qualitative study (NYT online poll April 2020)
• Employed mothers’ time on chores, childcare, and home education increased and the majority of mothers said they had the primary responsibility for these tasks.
• More egalitarian increases on chores and childcare among dual-remotely-working couples
• Del Boca et al. (2022) – Italian study
• During periods of work restrictions in April and November 2020
• Men spent more hours on household production when WFH but fewer hours when their partners were WFH
• Women’s household production did not depend on their partners’ work location arrangements

11 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

American Time Use Survey 2003-21

• Nationally representative sample of individuals in households who recently completed their final month in the CPS
• Time diary covers a 24-hour period starting at 4:00am on the day before the interview
• Collects info on who is present & secondary childcare for children under age 13
• Diary sample:

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12 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Main Sample

• Mothers and fathers in dual-earner couples
• Both members of the couple are aged 21–65
• Own household children under age 13
• Weekday workdays with >=1 hour of paid work
• No diaries collected for March 18^th – May 9^th

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13 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Sub-samples

• Weekend days for parents in dual-earner couples
• Examine paid work time
• Weekday workdays during COVID only
• Both parents are full-time wage and salary workers
• Mothers and fathers have more similar work hours
• Less control over scheduled hours
• Parents interviewed about school-year diary days
• Virtual schooling demands attention
• Summer camps not available
• Parents on WFH days
• Is a child at home too?
• Definition: At least 5 minutes with child at home between 9 a.m. – 2 p.m.
• Members of couples without children

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14 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Average Hours per Weekday Workday

• Work and work-related activities
• Total childcare
• Primary childcare
• Secondary childcare (not necessarily in same room)
• Face time with children
• In the same room at home or accompanied if away from home
• Household production
• Total work = paid work + primary childcare + household production + other facetime
• Share of work hours doing secondary childcare

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Time Use Outcomes

15 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Average Hours per Weekday Workday �During COVID, by Work Location

16 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Percentage of Fathers Spending Time with Children on Weekday Workdays, by Time of Day and Work Location �

17 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Percentage of Mothers Spending Time with Children on Weekday Workdays by Time of Day and Work Location �

18 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Percentage of Work Hours while also Caring for Children

19 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Number of Work Episodes

Average Hours Worked on the Average Weekend Day �by Parents in Dual-earner Couples �

20 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Weekday Workdays WFH During COVID: Percentage of Parents Working, Working with a Child Present, and Working while Supervising a Child

21 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Model 1: WFH Day Interacted with Gender and COVID

How do mothers and fathers working from home (WFH) spend their time compared to those working away from home (WAFH), before and during COVID?

Y_i = γ₀ + γ₁Female_i + γ₂WFH_i + γ₃COVID_i + γ₄WFH_i × Female_i + γ₅Female_i × COVID_i +

γ₆WFH_i × COVID_i + γ₇WFH_i × Female_i × COVID_i + γ₈X_i + ν_i

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Y_i – hours spent on an activity on the average weekday workday

WFH_i – respondent works from home on diary day

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X: age, age squared, log hourly wage, and indicators for cohabitation status, an extra adult in the household, age of youngest household child, 3+ own children in household, education (no high school degree, some college, bachelor’s degree, advanced degree), paid hourly, part-time, partner part-time, self-employed, union member, race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic black, Hispanic, non-Hispanic other race), living in a metropolitan area, 11 occupation groups, 14 industry groups, and Census region, month, and year.

We predict average daily hours for activities on weekday workdays and report differences (gaps) in these predicted hours for working parents in dual-earner couples by WFH status and gender over time.

22 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

WFH–WAFH Hours Gaps Before and After COVID�

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

23 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Model 2: WFH Day Interacted with Gender and Partner’s WFH Status (COVID diaries only)

Does parents’ time use when WFH vary by the WFH status of their partner?

Y_i = β₀ + β₁Female_i + β₂WFH_i + β₃PARTNER_WFH_i + β₄WFH_i × Female_i

+ β₅PARTNER_WFH_i × Female_i + β₆WFH_i × PARTNER_WFH_i

+ β₇WFH_i × PARTNER_WFH_i × Female_i + β₈X_i + ε_i

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Y_i – hours spent on activity on average weekday workday

PARTNER_WFH_i – prob(partner works from home on diary day)

• Predict WFH day status of coupled ATUS respondents aged 21–65 by gender in the 2020–21 ATUS
• Use probit coefficients to predict partner’s WFH status

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24 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Predicting Work-from-home Day During COVID �(Selected Marginal Effects)

• Probit controls:
• Share of workers within detailed occupation-region-year cells who teleworked in the past 4 weeks because of COVID (Current Population Survey)
• Demographic controls: age, wage, paid hourly, cohabiter, part-time worker, partner part-time worker, self-employed, union member, education level, race/ethnicity, age of children indicators, 3+ children, other household adult, metropolitan area, major occupations, major industries, and pandemic month

25 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Distribution of Predicted Partner’s Work-from-Home Probability

(Frequency)

26 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

WFH–WAFH Hours Gaps During COVID-19�(Dual-earner Couples with Children)

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01

Sample: Dual-earner Couples with Children age<13.

27 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

WFH–WAFH Hours Gaps During COVID-19�(Dual-earner Couples with Children: Full-time Wage and Salary Workers)

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

28 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

WFH–WAFH Hours Gaps During COVID-19�(Dual-earner Couples with Children: School-year Diaries)

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

29 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

WFH and the Gender Care Gap �

30 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Model 3: Child-at-home Status Interacted with Gender and Partner’s WFH Status (COVID WFH days only)

How does having a child at home during the workday impact the time that mothers and fathers spend on paid work, chores, and childcare?

Y_i = α₀ + α₁Female_i + α₂CHILDHOME_i + α₃PARTNER_WFH_i + α₄Female_i × CHILDHOME_i + α₅Female_i × PARTNER_WFH_i + α₆CHILDHOME_i × PARTNER_WFH_i + α₇Female_i × CHILDHOME_i × PARTNER_WFH_i + α₈X_i + η_i

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Y_i – hours spent on activity on average weekday workday

CHILDHOME_i – respondent works from home on diary day

PARTNER_WFH_i – prob(partner works from home on diary day)

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31 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Child Home – Child Not Home Hours Gaps During COVID-19�(Work-from-home Days)

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

32 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

WFH–WAFH Hours Gaps During COVID-19�(Dual-earner Couples with Children age <18)

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

33 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

WFH–WAFH Hours Gaps Before and After COVID�(Dual-Earner Couples without Children age<18)

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

34 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Summary of Childcare Findings

• The COVID-19 pandemic increased the demand for household-provided childcare.
• The WFH–WAFH primary childcare gap for mothers increased by a ½ hour, on average.
• The parent WFH alone did more childcare compared to their WAFH counterpart.
• Mostly secondary childcare
• They also spent more time with their children (i.e., facetime).
• Gender gap decreased when fathers WFH alone
• Having a partner WFH as well eased the childcare burden
• Especially for mothers working full-time

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35 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Summary of Paid Work Findings

• When WFH alone, mothers worked fewer paid hours.
• Mothers were able to maintain their work hours during the pandemic if their partners were also WFH.
• Could increase their attachment to the labor force.
• Possible implications for productivity
• Mothers WFH were more likely to spread work throughout the day and work in the evenings and had more interruptions in work than fathers.
• Mothers did more caring of children while doing paid work.

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36 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Summary of Chores and Total Work Findings

• On the average day, fathers and mothers WFH did equally more household chores, regardless of their partner’s WFH status.
• On the average school day, fathers WFH alone increased their household chores compared to their counterparts WAFH.
• On the average day, parents’ total work was higher when WFH than WAFH.
• No statistically significant differences by partner’s WFH status on the average day
• When a child was at home, fathers did more work when their partner was also at home.

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37 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Summary of Couples without Children Findings

• Women without children, like mothers, worked fewer paid hours when WFH alone.
• Men and women without children spent more time on chores when WFH alone than with their partners.
• WFH–WAFH hours gaps for chores were larger than for parents.

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38 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Challenges

• A single respondent per household aged 15 and older
• Work-from-home status of the other parent is not observable
• Not “normal” times
• Many childcare facilities remained closed
• 18% of daycares were closed in July 2020 (National Association for the Education of Young Children)
• Many public schools were virtual or hybrid in the 2020–21 school year
• 82% of students in September 2020 (Burbio 2020)
• Leisure choices constrained
• Can results be generalizable?
• Some mothers exited the labor force in 2020 🡪 potential selection issues

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39 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Differences in Predicted Hours �

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

40 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov

Differences in Predicted Hours

Significance levels: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01.

41 — U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics • bls.gov