MEETING LIFE CHALLENGES

CHAPTER 3

NATURE, TYPES AND SOURCES OF STRESS

STRESS

THE PATTERN OF RESPONSES AN ORGANISM MAKES TO STIMULUS EVENT THAT DISTURBS THE EQUILIBRIUM AND EXCEEDS A PERSON’S ABILITY TO COPE.

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TYPES:

• EUSTRESS
• DISTRESS

NATURE OF STRESS

• LATIN WORDS
• ‘STRICTUS’, MEANING TIGHT OR NARROW
• ‘STRINGERE’, THE VERB MEANING TO TIGHTEN

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• STRESSORS ARE EVENTS THAT CAUSE OUR BODY TO GIVE THE STRESS RESPONSE. EG..???

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• THE REACTION TO EXTERNAL STRESSORS IS CALLED ‘STRAIN’

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NATURE OF STRESS

HANS SELYE - “THE NONSPECIFIC RESPONSE OF THE BODY TO ANY DEMAND”

• REGARDLESS OF THE CAUSE OF THE THREAT, THE INDIVIDUAL WILL RESPOND WITH THE SAME PHYSIOLOGICAL PATTERN OF REACTIONS.

BUT

• DIFFERENT STRESSORS MAY PRODUCE SOMEWHAT DIFFERENT PATTERNS OF STRESS REACTION, AND DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS MAY HAVE DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTIC MODES OF RESPONSE.

THEREFORE

• STRESS IS A DYNAMIC MENTAL/COGNITIVE STATE.
• A DISRUPTION IN HOMEOSTASIS OR AN IMBALANCE THAT GIVES RISE TO A REQUIREMENT FOR RESOLUTION OF THAT IMBALANCE OR RESTORATION OF HOMEOSTASIS.

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PERCEPTION OF STRESS

PERCEPTION OF STRESS

• THE PERCEPTION OF STRESS IS DEPENDENT UPON THE INDIVIDUAL’S COGNITIVE APPRAISAL OF EVENTS AND THE RESOURCES AVAILABLE TO DEAL WITH THEM.
• LAZARUS HAS DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN TWO TYPES OF APPRAISAL:
• PRIMARY- REFERS TO THE PERCEPTION OF A NEW OR CHANGING ENVIRONMENT AS POSITIVE, NEUTRAL OR NEGATIVE IN ITS CONSEQUENCES.
• SECONDARY- WHICH IS THE ASSESSMENT OF ONE’S COPING ABILITIES AND RESOURCES AND WHETHER THEY WILL BE SUFFICIENT TO MEET THE HARM, THREAT OR CHALLENGE OF THE EVENT.
• THIS TWO-LEVEL APPRAISAL PROCESS DETERMINES NOT ONLY OUR COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES BUT ALSO OUR EMOTIONAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO EXTERNAL EVENTS.

A General Model of the Stress Process

STRESS APPRAISAL

PHYSIOLOGICAL APPRAISAL

STRESS APPRAISAL

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

• SYMPTOMS OF STRESS CAN BE PHYSICAL, EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIOURAL:
• LACK OF CONCENTRATION MEMORY LOSS, POOR DECISION-MAKING, INCONSISTENCY IRREGULAR ATTENDANCE , TIMEKEEPING
• LOW SELF-ESTEEM, POOR LONG-TERM PLANNING, FRANTIC BURSTS OF ENERGY, EXTREME MOOD SWINGS, EMOTIONAL OUTBURSTS, WORRY, ANXIETY, FEAR, DEPRESSION.
• DIFFICULTIES WITH SLEEP, DIFFICULTIES WITH EATING, MISUSE OF DRUGS, PHYSICAL ILLNESS, E.G. STOMACH UPSET HEADACHE BACKACHE

TYPES OF STRESS

• PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS
• OVEREXERT OURSELVES PHYSICALLY
• ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES
• PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS
• FRUSTRATION
• CONFLICTS
• INTERNAL PRESSURES
• SOCIAL PRESSURES
• SOCIAL STRESS
• INDUCED EXTERNALLY AND RESULT FROM OUR INTERACTION WITH OTHER PEOPLE

SOURCES OF STRESS

• LIFE EVENTS- RELOCATION, MARRIAGE, DIVORCE, CHILD BIRTH, LIFESTYLE CHANGES ETC (INTENSITY/FREQUENCY).

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• HASSLES- NOISY SURROUNDINGS, COMMUTING, QUARRELSOME NEIGHBOURS, ELECTRICITY AND WATER SHORTAGE, TRAFFIC SNARLS ETC. (WELL-BEING)

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• TRAUMATIC EVENTS - A FIRE, TRAIN OR ROAD ACCIDENT, ROBBERY, EARTHQUAKE, TSUNAMI (PTSD)

EFFECTS OF STRESS

• EMOTIONAL EFFECTS- MOOD SWINGS, ERRATIC BEHAVIOR, VICIOUS CIRCLE OF DECREASING CONFIDENCE, ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION, INCREASED PHYSICAL, TENSION, INCREASED PSYCHOLOGICAL TENSION.
• PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS- ADRENALINE AND CORTISOL, EXTREMELY DAMAGING TO THE BODY IN THE LONG-TERM EFFECTS, SLOWING DOWN OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM, EXPANSION OF AIR PASSAGES IN THE LUNGS, INCREASED HEART RATE, AND CONSTRICTION OF BLOOD VESSELS.
• COGNITIVE EFFECTS- MENTAL OVERLOAD, IRRATIONAL DECISIONS, POOR CONCENTRATION, AND REDUCED SHORT- TERM, MEMORY CAPACITY.
• BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS- EATING LESS NUTRITIONAL FOOD, INCREASING INTAKE OF STIMULANT SUCH AS CAFFEINE, EXCESSIVE CONSUMPTION OF CIGARETTES, ALCOHOL AND OTHER DRUGS SUCH AS TRANQUILLIZERS, DISRUPTED SLEEP PATTERNS, INCREASED ABSENTEEISM, AND REDUCED WORK PERFORMANCE.

STRESS AND HEALTH

• PEOPLE WHO ARE UNHAPPY IN THEIR PERSONAL LIVES FALL SICK MORE OFTEN THAN THOSE WHO ARE HAPPY AND ENJOY LIFE.
• WHEN STRESS IS PROLONGED, IT AFFECTS PHYSICAL HEALTH AND IMPAIRS PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING.
• PEOPLE EXPERIENCE EXHAUSTION AND ATTITUDINAL PROBLEMS.
• THE MENTAL EXHAUSTION APPEARS IN THE FORM OF IRRITABILITY, ANXIETY, FEELINGS OF HELPLESSNESS AND HOPELESSNESS. THIS STATE OF PHYSICAL, EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EXHAUSTION IS KNOWN AS BURNOUT.
• STRESS CAN PRODUCE CHANGES IN THE IMMUNE SYSTEM, DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS, HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE, AS WELL AS PSYCHOSOMATIC DISORDERS INCLUDING ULCERS, ASTHMA, ALLERGIES AND HEADACHES.
• SIXTY PER CENT OF MEDICAL VISITSARE PRIMARILY FOR STRESS-RELATED SYMPTOMS

STRESS ��AND ��HEALTH

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

• ALARM REACTION STAGE : THE PRESENCE OF A NOXIOUS STIMULUS OR STRESSOR LEADS TO ACTIVATION OF THE ADRENALPITUITARY-CORTEX SYSTEM. THIS TRIGGERS THE RELEASE OF HORMONES PRODUCING THE STRESS RESPONSE. NOW THE INDIVIDUAL IS READY FOR FIGHT OR FLIGHT.

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• RESISTANCE STAGE : IF STRESS IS PROLONGED, THE RESISTANCE STAGE BEGINS. THE PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM CALLS FOR MORE CAUTIOUS USE OF THE BODY’S RESOURCES. THE ORGANISM MAKES EFFORTS TO COPE WITH THE THREAT, AS THROUGH CONFRONTATION.

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• EXHAUSTION STAGE : CONTINUED EXPOSURE TO THE SAME STRESSOR OR ADDITIONAL STRESSORS DRAINS THE BODY OF ITS RESOURCES AND LEADS TO THE THIRD STAGE OF EXHAUSTION. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS INVOLVED IN ALARM REACTION AND RESISTANCE BECOME INEFFECTIVE AND SUSCEPTIBILITY TO STRESS-RELATED DISEASES SUCH AS HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE BECOMES MORE LIKELY.

STRESS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

• THE IMMUNE SYSTEM GUARDS THE BODY AGAINST ATTACKERS, BOTH FROM WITHIN AND OUTSIDE.
• PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY FOCUSES ON THE LINKS BETWEEN THE MIND, THE BRAIN AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM.
• THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUCOCYTES) WITHIN THE IMMUNE SYSTEM IDENTIFY AND DESTROY FOREIGN BODIES (ANTIGENS) SUCH AS VIRUSES.
• IT ALSO LEADS TO THE PRODUCTION OF ANTIBODIES.
• T CELLS, B CELLS AND NATURAL KILLER CELLS ARE THE DIFFERENT KIND OF LEUCOCYTES.
• T CELLS DESTROY INVADERS, AND T-HELPER CELLS INCREASE IMMUNOLOGICAL ACTIVITY.

STRESS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

• IT IS THESE T-HELPER CELLS THAT ARE ATTACKED BY THE HUMAN IMMUNO DEFICIENCY VIRUS (HIV), THE VIRUS CAUSING ACQUIRED IMMUNO DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS).
• B CELLS PRODUCE ANTIBODIES.
• NATURAL KILLER CELLS ARE INVOLVED IN THE FIGHT AGAINST BOTH VIRUSES AND TUMOURS.
• STRESS CAN AFFECT NATURAL KILLER CELL CYTOTOXICITY, WHICH IS OF MAJOR IMPORTANCE IN THE DEFENCE AGAINST VARIOUS INFECTIONS AND CANCER.

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EXAMINATION ANXIETY

• INVOLVES FEELINGS OF TENSION OR UNEASINESS THAT OCCUR BEFORE, DURING, OR AFTER AN EXAMINATION
• EXAMINATION STRESS HAS BEEN CHARACTERIZED AS “EVALUATIVE APPREHENSION” OR “EVALUATIVE STRESS” AND PRODUCES DEBILITATING BEHAVIOURAL, COGNITIVE, AND PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS NO DIFFERENT FROM THOSE PRODUCED BY ANY OTHER STRESSOR.
• INTENSE EMOTIONAL REACTIONS, NEGATIVE THOUGHTS ABOUT THEMSELVES, FEELINGS OF INADEQUACY, HELPLESSNESS, AND LOSS OF STATUS AND ESTEEM THAT IMPAIR THEIR PERFORMANCE.
• WHILE PREPARING FOR EXAMINATIONS:
• ONE MUST SPEND ENOUGH TIME FOR STUDY
• OVERVIEW AND WEIGH ONE’S STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
• DISCUSS DIFFICULTIES WITH TEACHERS AND CLASSMATES
• PLAN A REVISION TIMETABLE
• CONDENSE NOTES
• SPACE OUT REVISION PERIODS
• MOST IMPORTANTLY ON THE EXAMINATION DAY CONCENTRATE ON STAYING CALM.

LIFESTYLE

• STRESSED INDIVIDUALS MAY BE MORE LIKELY TO EXPOSE THEMSELVES TO PATHOGENS, WHICH ARE AGENTS CAUSING PHYSICAL ILLNESS.
• PEOPLE WHO ARE STRESSED HAVE POOR NUTRITIONAL HABITS, SLEEP LESS AND ARE LIKELY TO ENGAGE IN OTHER HEALTH RISKING BEHAVIOURS LIKE SMOKING AND ALCOHOL ABUSE.
• SUCH HEALTH IMPAIRING BEHAVIOURS DEVELOP GRADUALLY AND ARE ACCOMPANIED BY PLEASANT EXPERIENCES TEMPORARILY.
• HOWEVER, WE TEND TO IGNORE THEIR LONG-TERM DAMAGING EFFECTS AND UNDERESTIMATE THE RISK THEY POSE TO OUR LIVES.
• HEALTH PROMOTING BEHAVIOUR LIKE BALANCED DIET, REGULAR EXERCISE, FAMILY SUPPORT, ETC. PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN GOOD HEALTH.
• ADHERING TO A LIFESTYLE THAT INCLUDES BALANCED LOW FAT DIET, REGULAR EXERCISE AND CONTINUED ACTIVITY ALONG WITH POSITIVE THINKING ENHANCES HEALTH AND LONGEVITY.

COPING WITH STRESS

• COPING IS A DYNAMIC SITUATION-SPECIFIC REACTION TO STRESS. IT IS A SET OF CONCRETE RESPONSES TO STRESSFUL SITUATIONS OR EVENTS THAT ARE INTENDED TO RESOLVE THE PROBLEM AND REDUCE STRESS.
• THE WAY WE COPE WITH STRESS OFTEN DEPENDS ON RIGID DEEP-SEATED BELIEFS, BASED ON EXPERIENCE, E.G. WHEN CAUGHT IN A TRAFFIC JAM WE FEEL ANGRY, BECAUSE WE BELIEVE THAT THE TRAFFIC ‘SHOULD’ MOVE FASTER.
• TO MANAGE STRESS WE OFTEN NEED TO REASSESS THE WAY WE THINK AND LEARN COPING STRATEGIES.
• TASK-ORIENTED STRATEGY

OBTAINING INFORMATION ABOUT THE STRESSFUL SITUATION AND ABOUT ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION AND THEIR PROBABLE OUTCOME; IT ALSO INVOLVES DECIDING PRIORITIES AND ACTING ACCORDINGLY.

• EMOTION-ORIENTED STRATEGY

EFFORTS TO MAINTAIN HOPE AND TO CONTROL ONE’S EMOTIONS; IT CAN ALSO INVOLVE VENTING FEELINGS OF ANGER AND FRUSTRATION, OR DECIDING THAT NOTHING CAN BE DONE TO CHANGE THINGS.

• AVOIDANCE-ORIENTED STRATEGY

DENYING OR MINIMISING THE SERIOUSNESS OF THE SITUATION; IT ALSO INVOLVES CONSCIOUS SUPPRESSION OF STRESSFUL THOUGHTS AND THEIR REPLACEMENT BY SELF-PROTECTIVE THOUGHTS.

COPING WITH STRESS

LAZARUS AND FOLKMAN

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• COPING REFERS TO CONSTANTLY CHANGING COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL EFFORTS TO MASTER, REDUCE OR TOLERATE THE INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL DEMANDS THAT ARE CREATED BY THE STRESSFUL TRANSACTION.
• COPING SERVES TO ALLOW THE INDIVIDUAL TO MANAGE OR ALTER A PROBLEM AND REGULATE THE EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO THAT PROBLEM.

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• PROBLEM-FOCUSED “I MADE A PLAN OF ACTION AND FOLLOWED IT”.
• EMOTION FOCUSED “I DID SOME THINGS TO LET IT OUT OF MY SYSTEM”.

COPING WITH STRESS

• RESPOND TO THE FOLLOWING ITEMS ON A 5-POINT SCALE RANGING FROM

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5 = ALWAYS TO 1 = NEVER.

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• I EXPRESS EMOTIONS OPENLY AND DIRECTLY.
• I WORK TOWARDS MY OWN PERSONAL GOALS.
• I ACCEPT SITUATIONS THAT CANNOT BE ALTERED.
• I DISCUSS MY WORRIES WITH FRIENDS.
• I MAY NOT GET EVERYTHING JUST RIGHT.

STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

• RELAXATION TECHNIQUES- DEEP BREATHING IS USED ALONG WITH MUSCLE RELAXATION TO CALM THE MIND AND RELAX THE BODY.
• MEDITATION PROCEDURES- THE MEDITATOR BECOMES UNAWARE OF ANY OUTSIDE STIMULATION AND REACHES A DIFFERENT STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS.
• BIOFEEDBACK
• DEVELOPING AN AWARENESS OF THE PARTICULAR PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE, E.G. HEART RATE
• LEARNING WAYS OF CONTROLLING THAT PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE IN QUIET CONDITIONS
• TRANSFERRING THAT CONTROL INTO THE CONDITIONS OF EVERYDAY LIFE.
• CREATIVE VISUALISATION- SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE THAT USES IMAGERY AND IMAGINATION.
• COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL TECHNIQUES
• ASSESSMENT
• STRESS REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
• APPLICATION AND FOLLOW THROUGH
• EXERCISE- FOUR TIMES A WEEK/ 30 MINS A DAY.

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PROMOTING POSITIVE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

1. STRESS RESISTANT PERSONALITY
2. LIFE SKILLS
3. ASSERTIVENESS
4. TIME MANAGEMENT
5. RATIONAL THINKING
6. IMPROVING RELATIONSHIPS
7. SELF-CARE

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1. OVERCOMING UNHELPFUL HABITS
2. DIET
3. EXERCISE
4. POSITIVE ATTITUDE
5. POSITIVE THINKING
6. SOCIAL SUPPORT