Reading Instruction and Difficulties in LINC Level 1-3 Classes�

Kim Henrie, M.Ed. Thesis

Brock University

kimhenrie@gmail.com

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© K. Henrie 2011

Background for Research Problem & Questions

Research Context�

• According to 2006 census data (Stats. Can, 2008), immigrants accounted for 1 in 5 Canadians

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• Between 1999 and 2008 the number of Permanent Residents with less than 9 years of education doubled from 3,703 => 6, 702

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• From 2003 to 2008, the number of refugees increased by 6 % (CIC, 2009a)

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• Statistics Canada (2003) reported that 60 % of immigrants possess inadequate literacy skills

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Percentage for Levels of Education of Permanent Residents aged �15 years or older1999-2008 (CIC, 2009a)

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• CIC (2009b) also found that immigration status influenced the rate of progress with lower level clients requiring more time to complete LINC levels

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• Lower level LINC classes contain more refugee and family class immigrants

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• On average refugees require 70-80 more hours of instruction to complete a

LINC level

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*national averages

• Infante (2000) correlated the number of years of education with first language literacy levels
• 7 years = basic literacy skills
• 12+ years = strong literacy skills

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• Burnaby (1989) identified individuals with low levels of education and first language literacy skills as ‘at-risk’

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• Many learners with literacy needs are placed into mainstream LINC classes (Verma, 2004)

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• 70 % of literacy classes are multi-level classes combining literacy and non-literacy clients (Jangles Productions, 2006)

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Review of Literature �

Research Questions

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1. Does the reading instruction of these instructors reflect evidence-based practices?

2. Why do some clients fail to progress through the LINC reading benchmark levels as expected?

3. How do the previous educational and life experiences of LINC clients in LINC Level 1-3 classes relate to their experiences in the LINC program and contribute to progress that is slower than expected?

4. How does the instructors’ understanding of the learners’ previous educational experiences provide insight into clients’ progress in the LINC program?

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Methodology�

• data was collected in the form of :
• demographic questionnaires
• 2 semi-structured interviews (60-90 minutes)
• teaching artefacts (teaching plans)
• field study notes

• 5 participants, from 2 cities in Southwestern Ontario, were recruited from LINC Level 1-3 classes from 4 different LINC providers

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• I, as the researcher, had the dual role of participant/researcher

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• Reliability and validity were maintained through triangulation of data and the process of member checking in data analysis

A qualitative case study approach

( Creswell, 2007; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003)

Limitations�

• Participant backgrounds and representativeness; prior to TESL training, there’s no singular path to becoming an instructor

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• Participant engagement in research process; credibility was increased through member checking and triangulation

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• LINC level boundaries

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• Size of the study limited generalizeability

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• Member checking allowed for multiple perspectives and ensured that themes weren’t limited to my interpretations

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Instructors’ Teaching Profiles�

Data Analysis�

• A comparative and contrastive case analysis revealed 3 primary themes, each with a number of subthemes
• All of the themes were represented by 4 of the 5 participants with the exception of ‘skill development’ and ‘instructor needs’, which were raised by only 2 of the participants

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Client/Instructor Backgrounds & �Classroom Needs

Client Background, �Needs, & Goals

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“Where they grew up, they weren’t exposed to books

very much. School might have been very intermittent

or spotty, and they had to go a long way to get there.

The quality of education and the importance of

education might not have been stressed or the

benefits of education were marginal because even if

you did manage to finish high school, there weren’t

many jobs, and civil war was going to wipe out any

chance of industry, commerce, or professions, and

you’re going to end up in a refugee camp anyway

regardless of how many years you spent in school.”

(Alex, Second Interview)

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Administrative, Volunteer, Peer Support

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“There’s some sort of community spirit within

the women here that are supportive of

each other, so that if someone’s from the

same cultural group or they make a friendship

with another person in the class, that they do

find ways to kind of— somehow there’s some

kind of information transfer between the

clients within my class than can somehow

override the gaps that I not even see. “ (Jane,

First Interview)

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Mixed-levels

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“One of the most damaging things is the mixed

level classes. Even if you had a purely Level 1 class,

there would still be a spectrum of variety within

there. So, having a class that’s a 1/2/3 or a 1/2, I

just think it’s far too much variety, and I think

mixed-level classes are probably one of the biggest

issues.” (Kim, First Interview)

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Class Size

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“So because my class is up to 20 people, I

need to accommodate a range of

benchmarks within the skills...my morning

class is 20 students. It’s full, completely full.

And my afternoon, I have 15. That’s my

limit.” (Sam, First Interview)

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Skill Development (*)

“When you come to Canada, life is like a

big wall. There is a big wall inside of you

that you have to break and then go

through to the other side. … You have to

explore the new world, and every time,

it’s a challenge.” (Sam, First Interview)

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Continuous Intake & Attendance

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“There’s a challenge there. Stressful because

you have already planned your class until up to

that point, and you are planning the next level.

All of a sudden, you have to go back. Oh, you

have to plan something that will be in the

middle. Something like that. So, you’re

planning, sometimes it works. Sometimes it

doesn’t and you have to keep making a new

plan, re-plan. I would like to change that. I

would wait at least until the semester end. The

new students should not come before that.”

(Sam, First Interview)

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Instructors’ Undergraduate Backgrounds/ TESL Training

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“I guess the framework is meant to be the

same for how we do things, but because our

everyday realities are so different, you go into

the classroom, and you shut your door, and

it’s kind of, I mean, like most teachers, right?

What goes on within your classroom is

unique, right?” (Kim, Second Interview)

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Instructor Needs (*)

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“I know that I need to improve my

techniques in transferring that knowledge

to them- the technicalities of reading and

decoding, or pronunciation. I still see the

weaknesses in my ability to teach. But I

think that I’ve made a good connection

with my students. “ (Alex, First Interview)

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Reading Strategies, Methods, & Challenges

Reading Strategies

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“I think sometimes you do notice different

strategies, different approaches. There are

the students who use a dictionary quite

frequently, and then, there are some who

don’t as much. There are some students who

underline the words and will ask me and some

students who won’t. So yeah, I mean, there’s

quite a difference in what they’re used to, I

guess, their personalities, how they approach

it.” (Amy, Second interview)

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Instructional Methods

“So, what I ended up doing is

differentiating the tasks that we’re doing

and trying to come up with two, maybe

three different methods for one

assignment that can be accomplished

by everyone within the group.” (Kim, First

Interview)

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Reading Challenges in Class

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“I think that, for the most part, my students

have little reading education and instruction

in reading, probably limited access to books.

I would say they’re handicapped in their

choice of reading material. They seem to be

attracted to reading, but they don’t know

how to approach it.” (Alex, Second

Interview)

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L1 Literacy Problems

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“Some people can just automatically make

meaning on their own because they’re used

to reading well in their own language, and so

they can just pick and go with English

without any difficulty. And then other people

are less experienced, less proficient readers in

their first language, and they’re really at the

beginning.” (Kim, First Interview)

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Assessment Expectations & Progress�

Classroom Progress

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“There’s so many factors holistically that play

out within the testing scenarios to determine

my students’ ability on any given test on any

given day, but I need to continually provide

opportunities for them to show me what

they can do without them sitting down with

the test paper and sum up the situation.”

(Jane, First Interview)

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Benchmark/LINC level progression

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“It’s not just for moving levels, but it’s just a

formal way of showing their progress, so

that we all know what our goals are. It

clarifies.” (Amy, First Interview)

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Benchmark Expectations

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“No, the problem really is that I can’t expect

certain things necessarily from a learner who

is labelled 1, 2, or 3 in certain skills. There’s a

general sense of what this learner can do and

has the skill to learn to do. And that’s sort of

what you’re working with is a general sense

of that. There are certain basics that learners

must have.” (Jane, Second Interview)

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Discussion�

A comparison between the themes and literature demonstrated 6 areas for discussion which fell into 3 separate areas of knowledge:

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1. Theoretical principles
2. Backgrounds, needs, & goals of LINC clients
3. Evidence-based reading instruction

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Theoretical Principles�

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• Adult education principles of using clients’ experiences to frame instruction were consistent with instructors’ approaches (Brookfield, 1995; Giroux, 1997; Merriam et al. 2007; Pratt, 2008)

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• Some instructors went to greater lengths to incorporate clients’ experiences and utilize a plurality of methods and materials

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• Instructors mentioned issues with assessment, including: over-emphasis on summative assessment, ineffectivess of assessment tools, subjectivity of instructors’ interpretations, and the correspondence between the CLBs and LINC levels

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Theoretical Principles continued

• Brookfield (2005) cautioned against idealizing a single framework as a perfect model; Freire (1985) assessment should evaluate experience not inspect learning

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• Collaboration was seen as a necessary part of instruction to respond to challenges of:

class size, diverse needs, monitoring and managing instruction, planning and facilitating instruction

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• This created a ‘Zone of Proximal Development’ (Vygotsky, 1978) where individuals were able to operate slightly beyond their current ability

Backgrounds, Needs and Goals� of LINC clients

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• Many instructors wanted more information about their clients for instructional planning
• TESOL (2000) identified these key background factors: languages spoken, country of origin, language of previous schooling, written literacy levels in all languages, and external factors (war, famine, natural disasters)
• Progress is highly variable, and some clients take more time
• CIC (2009b) found that refugees required 70-80 additional hours to progress to the next benchmark
• Some instructors saw a range of proficiencies as a potential flag for literacy problems
• Burnaby (1989, 1991) & Klassen & Burnaby (1993) stated that a range of listening and speaking proficiencies doesn’t indicate full literacy skills

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Backgrounds, Needs and Goals� of LINC clients continued

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• A connection was found between the number of years of previous education and literacy skills (UNESCO-ECLAC, 2010); less than 12 years = likely literacy problems
• Mixed level classes were more common among the instructors (80 %) than was reported by Jangles Productions (2006) (70 %)
• Condelli et al. (2008), Millar (2007) & Verma (2004) stated that clients with literacy needs should be separated from mainstream LINC clients
• Instructors spoke about identifying and communicating goals; Gillette (1994) found that intrinsic motivation coloured all parts of language learning
• Some instructors were unable to look beyond a Western model of education, which created an instructional barrier

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Evidence-based Reading Instruction

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• Instructors described challenges in reading including:

poor L1 language skills, inexperience with text, lack of motivation to read, & large class sizes

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• Grabe & Stoller (2002) found that educational background was important in determining reading proficiency; Grabe & Stoller, Robson (1982), & Strucker (2002) agreed that it is vital to establish L1 literacy first

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Evidence-based Reading Instruction continued

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• Instructors’ reading strategies were largely congruent with Kruidenier’s (2002) findings
• Major components of reading: phonemic awareness and decoding, fluency, vocabulary & comprehension; instructors cited a lack of time for each component
• One instructor indicated a reliance of contextual cues as a reading strategy, which is a proven characteristic of poor readers (Katts & Camhi, 2005)
• NPR (2000) & McShane (2005) defined five features of effective reading instruction: explicit instruction/explanation of purpose, strategy instruction, support leading to self-direction, intensive instruction, & segmenting instruction
• These features were not always reflected in the instructors’ responses

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Evidence-based Reading Instruction continued

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• Collaboration extends learners’ abilities (Joe, 1998; Krashen & Terrell, 1983, Vygotsky, 1978)

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• This was evident with all instructors; however, large, mixed-level classes or clients with literacy needs made collaboration challenging

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Implications

1. Access to client information primarily occurred outside of class time, during uncompensated time, making the change to a client profile or case management system impractical in spite of any potential benefits. Information currently available to instructors needs to be expanded to include information about goal setting.

2. New tools and/or methods for assessing clients need to be developed. TESL training and on-going PD should be expanded to include different client profiles. Expectations regarding progress between benchmarks and LINC levels should reflect the variable rate of progress between different clients, particularly in reading.

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Implications

3. Instructors required more support in their classrooms and used a patchwork of collaborative methods to meet the diverse needs of clients. They struggled to meet the needs of their clients on a daily basis. Instructors needs a voice to express their needs to LINC administrators, assessors, TESL Ontario, and CIC.

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4. The descriptions of the

instructors demonstrated a real

need for professional development

around evidence-based reading

practices.

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Implications

5. Clients with literacy needs should be

carefully screened and placed into an

appropriate literacy level class as having

clients with literacy needs in mainstream

classes causes stress on both the clients and

instructors. All four phases of literacy

should be implemented to facilitate better

placement of clients with literacy needs.

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©Hutt et al. (1997), Reprinted with Permission.

Conclusion

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“Teachers must often define challenge and growth differently in response to students’ varying interests and readiness levels.”

(Tomlinson, 2001, p. viii)

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kimhenrie@gmail.com

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Thank-you!

References�

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Brookfield, S.D. (2005). The power of critical theory. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Citizenship and Immigration Canada. (2009a). Facts and figures 2008: Immigration overview permanent and temporary residents. Ottawa, ON: Author.

Citizenship and Immigration Canada (2009b). Language instruction for newcomers to Canada-Performance Results by LINC level. Ottawa: ON: Author. Retrieved from http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/pdf/research-stats/LINC-results.pdf

Catts, H. W., & Kamhi, A. G. (2005). Language and reading disabilities (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

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Hutt, N., Young, L., & Crawford, K. (1997). The revised LINC literacy component 1997 of the LINC curriculum guidelines. Ottawa, ON: Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Reprinted with permission.

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References�

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Klassen, C. & Burnaby, B. (1993). Those who know: Views on literacy among adult immigrants in Canada. TESOL Quarterly, 27(3), 377-397.

Krashen, S., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford, England: Pergamon.

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Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S. & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Millar, D. (2007). Second language students in Canadian literacy programs: Current issues and concerns. Winnipeg, MB: Red River Community College. Retrieved from http://www.nald.ca/library/research/slsinclp/cover.htm

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Pratt, D. D. (1998). The research lens: A general model of teaching. In D.D. Pratt, Five perspectives on teaching in adult and higher education. (pp. 3-13). Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Co..

Robson, B. (1982). Hmong literacy, formal education, and their effects on performance in an ESL class. In B. T. Downing & D. P. Olney (Eds.), The Hmong in the west: Observations and reports (pp. 201-225). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.

Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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Strucker, J. (2002, June). NCSALL’s adult reading components study (ARCS). Paper presented at the International Conference on Multilingual and Cross-cultural Perspectives on Dyslexia, Washington, DC.

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (2000). Adult ESL language and literacy instruction: A vision and action agenda for the 21^st century. Retrieved from: www.cal.org/caela/esl_resources/vision.pdf

Tomlinson, C.A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms, 2^nd Edition, Alexandria, Virginia: ASCD.

UNESCO-ECLAC. (2010). The social and economic impact of illiteracy: Analytical model and pilot study. Retrieved from: www.unesco.org.santiago.

Verma, S. (2004). TESL Ontario position paper on the adult education review in Ontario. Retrieved from http://www.teslontario.org/uploads/research/AdEdRevPosPaper.pdf

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind and society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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