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见树又见林:东南亚研究中的�比较逻辑与理想类型

王昭晖

国际关系学院/南洋研究院

厦门大学

2022年3月20日

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内容

  • 1.为什么比较?
  • 2.理想类型
  • 3.如何比较?
  • 4.一个东南亚研究的例子
  • 5.结语

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飞行员、林中人与缩略地图

  • 有效的概括好比一张飞行员在横跨大陆时使用的广袤区域的缩略地图。这样的地图和那些详细的地图各有各的目的,都是非常重要的。对于只要知道这篇区域大致方位的人们来说,没有谁会希望了解每一幢房子和每一条小路的具体位置。
  • 但是,如果有人是步行来探索这一区域(就像当前比较历史学家花费大量时间所做的那样),那么,他首先注意到的会是一些细节,然后再逐渐发现这些细节的意义和相互关系。当然,可能很长一段时间里,这个探索者发现自己迷失了方向,被困在一片由各种细节性事实构成的灌木丛中(在这一灌木丛中寄居了一群专业人士,他们激烈地争论着这些灌木究竟是松木林还是热带雨林)。最终,探索者走出困境时可能身上遍布伤痕。如果让他画出一张关于这个区域的地图,那么可能会有招待过探索者的当地居民责怪他忘记了画上他家的房子和空地。在旅途结束时,如果这个探索者打算为后来人粗略地记录一些印象最深刻的事情的话,可能招致更大的批评。
  • 我现在所做的也无非如此——非常粗略地勾勒出我最主要的发现,希望能给读者提供一张值得我们一起探索的这个区域的缩略地图

——摩尔《专制与民主的社会起源:现代世界形成过程中的地主和农民》

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我们能从特殊走向一般吗?

  • “我致力40年学术生涯研究美国内战,我还没有完全理解它。我怎么敢在一般意义上讨论内战呢?甚至是只比较美国内战和西班牙内战也不敢,因为我没有花费过40年时间研究后者。糟糕的是,某些研究西班牙内战的学者胆敢侵人我的领地并对美国内战说三道四,这不是无法让人忍受吗?”
  • “是的,如果你长期研究某个事件,那确实给了你某种收益。但是,如果你从新的视角观察那个事件,或者将你在研究其他事件时获得的经验或直觉运用于那个事件,你就会获得不同类型的收益。我们希望这本书将会对打算利用该收益的历史学家和社会科学家提供有益的指导。”

——贾雷德·戴蒙德和詹姆斯·A.罗宾逊《历史的自然实验》

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1.为什么比较?

  • 克服狭隘(parochialism),避免“只见树木不见森林”

- 李普塞特(Lipset):“只懂得一个国家的人,基本上什么国家都不懂”(A person who knows only one country basically knows no country well)。

  • 探索共性(概念、规律和理论,generalized和特性(endemic, context, ad hoc)的基本方法

- 前者是科学(包括自科和社科)的根本任务,后者是人类学的关切;历史学家有分野(究天人之际,通古今之变vs. 人不能两次踏进同一条河流),区域国别学者同样有此分野。

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Generalized vs. ad hoc

  • 一时一事一议 vs. 时空可拓展性(temporal and spatial generalizability)
  • 更有趣的问题,更复杂的思考(研究设计)随之而来
  • 一个非常简单的例子:三个孩子,坐在车上往外观察树木
  • 基于时空拓展性,重新思考理论。

(1Marx’s historical materialism

(2Weber’s sociology of religion

(3)牛顿力学到狭义相对论

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More importantly,

  • 控制排“杂”(竞争性假设)、寻找因果关系/机制
  • 从受控实验到受控比较(controlled comparison)

- 求异法/最具相似性系统(most similar system)

- 求同法/最具差异性系统(most different system)

- 一般认为求异法优于求同法,求异法是证明的逻辑,求同法是证伪的逻辑(求同法的实质是排除法)。

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一系列拷问心灵的问题随之而来

  • 有可比性吗?(苹果vs石头?苹果vs梨子?)比较什么?不比较什么?

- 基督教 vs. 儒教/道教可比吗?(Max Weber)

- 春秋战国时代中国 vs. 近现代欧洲可比吗?(Victoria Tin-bor Hui)

- 中国vs西方可比吗?(Joseph Needham)

- 世界各大文明可比吗?(Jared Diamond)

  • 可比性/不可比性严格来说没有客观标准,具有一定的主观性,因此以问题意识/理论/变量/机制为导向的比较极其重要。

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拷问心灵的问题(续)

  • 能够控制吗?控制什么?
  • 特别是东南亚的多样性(地理、政治、经济、宗教),区域研究纷繁复杂
  • 严格的控制亦不可能,对于人文社科也更为困难,以问题意识/理论/变量/机制为导向同样是控制的操作标准。
  • 弱水三千,只取一瓢。”(新康德主义认识论:we need simplified concepts/mechanisms for some degree of understanding, but there exist impassable gaps between concepts and reality)

- 理想类型

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2.理想类型

  • “通过片面强调一种或几种观点,通过综合散乱的、不连贯的、时有时无的具体的个别现象,并按上述片面强调的观点将这些现象安排到一个统一的分析结构中,就可以形成一个理想类型。就其概念的纯粹性而言,我们不能在经验现实的任何地方发现这种主观构建物。这是一种乌托邦。历史研究所面临的的任务是,在每一种的情况下确定理想构建物在多大程度上接近或远离现实。”
  • “An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those one-sided emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct. In its conceptual purity, this mental construct cannot be found empirically anywhere in reality. It is a utopia. Historical research faces the task of determining in each individual case, the extent to which this ideal-construct approximates to or diverges from reality.”

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例子:赵鼎新的合法性理论

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例子:曼(Michael Mann)的国家能力

 

Infrastructural power

(state through society)

Low

High

Despotic power

(state over society)

Low

Feudal

Democracy

High

Imperial

Authoritarian

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理想类型与区域研究

  • 1.提取抽象概念,在概念之间构建因果联系和机制,并在实证分析(区域研究)中连接概念与经验

- 社会科学的发展是一个理想类型更替的过程(库恩),在这一过程中对于区域的认识和理解也得到积累。

  • 2.(一定程度上)缓解价值与事实的张力

- 区分“价值联系”(value reference)和“价值判断”(value judgment)

- “价值联系”之后的经验研究要努力保持客观性,即“价值中立”(value neutrality)或者“价值自由”(value free)

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3.如何比较?

  • 求异法/最具相似性系统(most similar system)
  • 求同法/最具差异性系统(most different system)
  • 比较历史分析(CHA)

- 中介性机制分析(intervening mechanism analysis): 过程追踪(process tracing)和案例内分析(within-case analysis)

- 时序分析(temporal analysis): path dependency, initial conditions, contingent event, critical juncture, self-reinforcement, sequencing, duration, timing

  • 质性比较分析(QCA)
  • 比较静态分析

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个案比较

  • 个案的最大优势在于挖掘机制,但从根本上来说难以确定因果关系(e.g.男女生谈恋爱→结婚/分手?)
  • 个案何以比较?
  • 1. 潜在比较:用单一案例证实或证伪某一理论假设,其中暗含了这一案例与前人研究中使用的其他案例的比较
  • 2. 比较历史分析中的案例内分析(within-case analysis):通过历史阶段的分割,将原本的一个案例变成实质意义的多个案例

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少案例比较

  • 案例数目:2-30个
  • 求同法、求异法、比较历史分析:2-8个
  • 定性比较分析:8-30个

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多案例比较

  • 案例数目:大于30个
  • 量化方法:统计

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一些东南亚比较研究的例子

  • 以2021年《东南亚研究》和《南洋问题研究》为例
  • 谢侃侃:《英属马来亚与荷属东印度群岛华人抗日救亡运动比较研究(1937—1942)》
  • 周方冶:《东南亚政治领袖“个人权威”现象研究——政治权力结构调整的视角》
  • 付宇珩:《例外状态下的国家权力:新冠疫情对东南亚国家治理的影响》
  • 无量化方法的文章

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一些明显很boring的例子

  • 《印度尼西亚对于中国崛起的认知》
  • 《安倍第二次执政以来日本加强与东盟国家海洋安全合作的进展、动因及前景》
  • 《杜特尔特政府的南海策略与逻辑》
  • 《菲律宾海洋产业的现状、发展举措及对中菲合作的思考》
  • 《印太语境下的日本—印尼海洋安全合作:进展、动因与限度》
  • 《中国—印尼伙伴关系升级的战略分析》
  • 《印太视域下日越南海合作及其对华影响》

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4.一个东南亚研究的例子

  • China’s infrastructure mentality: to build the road first to get rich!
  • Preconditions for China’s infrastructure boom: state-society relations (strong government vs. weak society), central-local relations (GDP tournament), economy of scale (population & market)
  • However, the successful story cannot simply be copied abroad. Infrastructure is often a hot potato.

- Sovereignty issue

- Connectivity is a double-edged sword.

- Short-term vs. long-term calculations (democracies vs. authoritarians)

  • Key research question: What explains the variations of infrastructure cooperation between China and recipient countries of BRI?

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Theorizing BRI policy making and implementation

China’s Belt and Road Initiative

Perception

Decision making

Policy implementation

Leader images

Domestic institutions

State-society relations

International outcomes

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A conceptual typology of foreign policy making

 

Foreign policy making is insulated from or responsive to political oppositions and societal influences

Insulated

Responsive

Foreign policy making is a personalized or an institutionalized process

Personalized

Arbitrary type

Populist type

Institutionalized

Procedural type

Democratic type

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An explanatory typology of socio-political risks on BRI projects

 

Foreign policy making is insulated from or responsive to political oppositions and societal influences

Insulated

Responsive

Foreign policy making is a personalized or an institutionalized process

Personalized

Medium-level

High-level

Institutionalized

Low-level

Medium-level

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From idea types to empirical cases

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4.1 Political risk on BRI projects in Malaysia

  • Before GE14: Pakatan Harapan (PH) government as the opposition criticized Najib’s heavy dependence on China to finance his hold on power as the greatest risk to Malaysia’s national sovereignty
  • After GE14: Mahathir cancelled two BRI projects (the Multi-Product Pipeline and Trans-Sabah Gas Pipeline) and reviewed the flagship project (East Coast Rail Link)

- Government to government meetings and negotiations

- No open tender: lack of transparency and competition

- No feasibility and cost-benefit study

- Najib’s corruption and rent seeking: 1MDB

  • Government transition in Malaysia exposed the political risk under the insulated personalized foreign policy making

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4.2 Societal risk on BRI projects in Indonesia

  • Anti-China (and anti-Chinese) sentiments in history
  • Societal concerns about Uyghurs Muslims in China
  • Growing Chinese investments and projects & increasing workforce from China &(?) unemployment rates in Indonesia
  • Disproportionate benefits (city elites vs. local community, China’s SOE vs. Indonesia’s SMEs)
  • Example: the Jakarta-Bandung high-speed railway, significant delays because of protests (land acquisition and environmental problems), critics of necessity and corruption, and law issues

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Indonesia’s politics responsive to society

  • Despite its importance for Indonesia’s infrastructure development, Chinese investment became a contentious issue in the 2019 election.
  • Prabowo accused Jokowi of being too soft on China, and allowing millions of Chinese workers in to work on Chinese-funded projects.
  • Prabowo declared if he becomes president, he will review all of Beijing’s projects in the country (just like Mahathir in Malaysia).
  • Jokowi won the election, but the social sentiments and risks are still there.

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4.3 Socio-political risks on BRI projects in Philippines

  • From Arroyo to Aquino III, and to Duterte
  • Duterte (“the Donald Trump of the Philippines”) was a populist leader with less institutionalized and more personalistic foreign policy decision-making.

- Build, Build, Build (BBB)

  • The Philippine society’s suspicion of China (and favourable to the US, according to Social Weather Survey) and indigenous peoples’ self-determination.
  • While potential challenges have not yet been materialized to reverse the current course, socio-political risks on China-Philippines relations are looming.

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4.4 Singapore-China BRI cooperation

  • A very special case: Singapore is relevant by playing the intermediary role, Infrastructure Asia
  • Singapore’s strong state capacity and institutionalized policy formulation (Liu, Fan and Lim 2020)
  • The silence from opposition political parties and social actors on Singapore’s China policy (such as the BRI) (Chan 2019)
  • Political representation is highly institutionalised, while policy making process is largely insulated in Singapore.
  • More stabilized and continued relationship between Singapore and China

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Infrastructure Asia

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Main findings

  • Zhaohui Wang and Yuheng Fu, “Local politics and fluctuating engagement with China: Analysing the Belt and Road Initiative in Maritime Southeast Asia”, The Chinese Journal of International Politics, forthcoming.

 

Foreign policy making is insulated from or responsive to political oppositions and societal influences

 

Insulated

Responsive

Foreign policy making is a personalized or institutionalized process

Personalized

Medium level of political risks on BRI projects in Malaysia

Relatively high level of socio-political risks on BRI projects in Philippines

Institutionalized

Relatively low level of risks on Singapore-China BRI cooperation

Medium level of societal risks on BRI projects in Indonesia

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5.结语

  • 区域研究如何摆脱“一时一事一议”,更好地思考“时空可拓展性”。
  • 比较是人类探索共性和特性的基本方法
  • 控制才能更好地排杂
  • 以问题意识/理论/变量/机制为导向的东南亚研究

- 理想类型

  • 相关阅读

-王昭晖:《重新找回韦伯: 区域研究与社会科学的融合与发展》,《国际关系研究》,即刊。

- Zhaohui Wang and Yuheng Fu, “Local politics and fluctuating engagement with China: Analysing the Belt and Road Initiative in Maritime Southeast Asia”, The Chinese Journal of International Politics, forthcoming.

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