1 of 36

Partner Abuse and Social Support and their Relationship with Depression, Anxiety, and Self-Esteem

Eunice Martinez

2 of 36

Past Research

3 of 36

Past Research: Partner Abuse

Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)

Abuse by a partner

41% of women
26% of men

Undergraduate women (Holmes, 2022)

20% - 37% experience physical abuse
70% - 90% experience psychological abuse
3% - 20% experience sexual abuse

4 of 36

Past Research: Psychological Effects

Women who experienced partner abuse were more likely to also be depressed and have suicidal thoughts (Dutton et al., 1999; Hegarty et al., 2004; Marshall, 1999).
Partner abuse was found to be positively correlated with anxiety (Jaquier et al., 2015; Schneider et al., 2009).

5 of 36

Past Research: Psychological Effects

Women who have experienced partner abuse tend to have lower self-esteem than those who have not (Aguilar & Nightingale, 1994; Cascardi & O’leary, 1992; Lin-Roark et al., 2015).
Depression tended to decrease with higher social support (Anderson et al., 2003)

6 of 36

Past Research: Limitations

Focus on PTSD and depression
Lack on information of helping factors
Research only includes female participants in many cases

7 of 36

Current Study

8 of 36

Purpose

To examine the relationship between partner abuse and depression, anxiety, and self-esteem as well as to examine how social support relates to these scores.

9 of 36

Variables

Independent variables:

Physical/Sexual Abuse
Psychological Abuse
Social Support

Dependent variables:

Depression
Anxiety
Self-esteem

10 of 36

Hypothesis #1

Those who have experienced more partner abuse, regardless of type, will likely report having higher feelings of depression and anxiety, as well as a lower self-esteem

11 of 36

Hypothesis #2

Those with larger social support will report lower feelings of depression and anxiety, as well as a higher self-esteem

12 of 36

Method

13 of 36

Method: Participants

26 students and faculty/staff from the University of Lynchburg

18-63 years of age
Mean: 31.27

Gender:

Male: 8 (30.8%)
Female: 18 (69.2%)

14 of 36

Method: Participants

Race/Ethnicity

White: 24 (92.3%)
Asian: 1 (3.8%)
Other: 1 (3.8%)

Sexual Orientation

Heterosexual: 22 (84.6%)
Homosexual/Gay: 1 (3.8%)
Bisexual: 3 (11.5%)

15 of 36

Method: Abuse Measures

Severity of Violence Against Women Scale (SVAWS) (Alsaker et al., 2011)

Physical and Sexual abuse
15 items on a 3-point Likert Scale
α= 0.73

Short Version Subscale From the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Index (PMWI) (Alsaker et al., 2011)

Psychological/emotional abuse
14 items on a 3-point Likert scale
α= 0.96

16 of 36

Method: Social Support Measure

Oslo Social Support Scale (OSSS-3) (Kocalevent et al., 2018)

How many people are so close to you that you can count on them if you have great personal problems?

‘None’, ‘1–2’, ‘3–5’, and ‘5+’

How much interest and concern do people show in what you do?

‘None’, ‘Little’, ‘Uncertain’, ‘Some’, and ‘A lot’

How easy is it to get practical help from neighbors if you should need it?

‘Very difficult’, ‘Difficult’, ‘Possible’, ‘Easy’, and ‘Very easy’

(α= 0.86)

To measure the amount of social support that participants had, the Standardization of the Oslo Social Support Scale (OSSS-3) was used (see Appendix D) (Kocalevent et al., 2018). The scale had 3 multiple choice items. One question asked, “How many people are so close to you that you can count on them if you have great personal problems?” The responses were ‘None’, ‘1–2’, ‘3–5’, and ‘5+’. The second question asked, “How much interest and concern do people show in what you do?” The responses were, ‘None’, ‘Little’, ‘Uncertain’, ‘Some’, and ‘A lot’. The last question asked, “How easy is it to get practical help from neighbors if you should need it?” The answers were ‘Very difficult’, ‘Difficult’, ‘Possible’, ‘Easy’, and ‘Very easy’. Internal consistency for the OSSS-3 (α= 0.86) was reliable.

17 of 36

Method: Depression Measure

The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) (Kroenke et al., 2001)

10 items
4-point Likert scale used for 9 questions
Multiple choice for the last question
α= 0.94

Depression was measured using The Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) (see Appendix E) (Kroenke et al., 2001). The scale included 1o items. For 9 of those items, a 4-point likert scale was used (0 = Not At All, 1 = Several days, 2 = More than half of the days, 3 = Nearly every day). The last question was formatted as a multiple choice question. It asked, “If you checked off any problems, how difficult have these problems made it for you to do your work, take care of things at home, or get along with other people?” There were 4 available responses that ranged from 0= Not difficult at all to 4= Extremely difficult. Scores are measured so that the higher scores demonstrate more severe levels of depression while the low scores demonstrate no to low levels of depression. Internal consistency for The PHQ-9 (α= 0.94) was reliable.

18 of 36

Method: Anxiety Measure

Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) (Beck et al., 1988)

21 items
4-point scale
α= 0.95

19 of 36

Method: Self-Esteem Measure

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE) (Rosenberg, 1979)

10 items
4-point Likert scale
α= 0.93

20 of 36

Method: Procedure

Recruitment via an email

All students and faculty/staff of the University of Lynchburg.
Link to a Google form.

Informed consent form.
Demographic questions
Severity of Violence Against Women Scale (SVAWS)

The participants of this study were recruited via an email sent out by the Principal Investigator. It was sent out to all students and faculty/staff of the University of Lynchburg. The email contained a link to a Google form. The first part of the survey was the informed consent form. The consent form included the purpose, the required time, the potential risks and benefits, the compensation, the confidentiality, and the confidentiality statements. They were given the option to agree to the consent form and participant, as well as the option to not agree. If they agreed, they would continue the survey. If they disagreed, they were not able to participate in the study.
Those who consented were then asked a series of demographic questions to address gender, age, race/ethnicity, sexuality, whether they had been in a relationship, and length of relationship. After this section, the Severity of Violence Against Women Scale (SVAWS) questions and the Short Version Subscale From the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Index (PMWI) questions were presented, followed by the questions from the the Standardization of the Oslo Social Support Scale (OSSS-3), then the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), then the The PHQ-9, and finally the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). In total, not including the demographic questions, there were 101 items. After every item had been answered, participants submitted the form and responses were recorded. Participants were then thanked for their participation.

21 of 36

Method: Procedure

Short Version Subscale From the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Index (PMWI)
Standardization of the Oslo Social Support Scale (OSSS-3)
Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI)
The Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9)
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE).

The participants of this study were recruited via an email sent out by the Principal Investigator. It was sent out to all students and faculty/staff of the University of Lynchburg. The email contained a link to a Google form. The first part of the survey was the informed consent form. The consent form included the purpose, the required time, the potential risks and benefits, the compensation, the confidentiality, and the confidentiality statements. They were given the option to agree to the consent form and participant, as well as the option to not agree. If they agreed, they would continue the survey. If they disagreed, they were not able to participate in the study.
Those who consented were then asked a series of demographic questions to address gender, age, race/ethnicity, sexuality, whether they had been in a relationship, and length of relationship. After this section, the Severity of Violence Against Women Scale (SVAWS) questions and the Short Version Subscale From the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Index (PMWI) questions were presented, followed by the questions from the the Standardization of the Oslo Social Support Scale (OSSS-3), then the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), then the The PHQ-9, and finally the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). In total, not including the demographic questions, there were 101 items. After every item had been answered, participants submitted the form and responses were recorded. Participants were then thanked for their participation.

22 of 36

Method: Procedure

SPSS Data Analysis

Partner Abuse

Multiple regression

Social Support

Pearson Correlation

The participants of this study were recruited via an email sent out by the Principal Investigator. It was sent out to all students and faculty/staff of the University of Lynchburg. The email contained a link to a Google form. The first part of the survey was the informed consent form. The consent form included the purpose, the required time, the potential risks and benefits, the compensation, the confidentiality, and the confidentiality statements. They were given the option to agree to the consent form and participant, as well as the option to not agree. If they agreed, they would continue the survey. If they disagreed, they were not able to participate in the study.
Those who consented were then asked a series of demographic questions to address gender, age, race/ethnicity, sexuality, whether they had been in a relationship, and length of relationship. After this section, the Severity of Violence Against Women Scale (SVAWS) questions and the Short Version Subscale From the Psychological Maltreatment of Women Index (PMWI) questions were presented, followed by the questions from the the Standardization of the Oslo Social Support Scale (OSSS-3), then the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), then the The PHQ-9, and finally the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE). In total, not including the demographic questions, there were 101 items. After every item had been answered, participants submitted the form and responses were recorded. Participants were then thanked for their participation.

23 of 36

Results

24 of 36

Results:

Multiple Regression: Depression

F(2,23) = 6.05, p = .008, R² = .35
Physical/Sexual:

Beta = .62, t(24) = 3.26, p = .014

Psychological:

Beta = .11, t(24) = .53, p = .599

25 of 36

Results:

Multiple Regression: Anxiety

F(2,23) = 6.77, p = .005, R² = .32
Physical/Sexual:

Beta = .63, t(24) = 3.26, p = .003

Psychological:

Beta = -.04, t(24) = -.21, p = .838

26 of 36

Results:

Multiple Regression: Self-esteem

F(2,23) = 5.12, p = .014, R² = .31
Physical/Sexual:

Beta = .62, t(24) = 3.06, p = .006

Psychological:

Beta = -.15, t(24) = -.76, p = .456

27 of 36

Results:

Correlations: Social Support

Depression

r(24) = -.26, p = .21

Anxiety

r(24) = -.21, p = .31

Self-Esteem

r(24) = -.61, p = .001

28 of 36

Discussion

29 of 36

Discussion: Interpretations

Partner Abuse

Physical/sexual abuse was associated with higher depression and anxiety
Physical/sexual abuse was associated with lower self-esteem

Social Support

Higher social support was associated with higher self-esteem

30 of 36

Discussion: Limitations

Small sample

26 participants

Open survey

Many participants had not experienced partner abuse

Survey

Self-report

31 of 36

Discussion: Future Directions

Larger sample
Partner abuse and races, sexualities, gender, etc.
Cases in which social support is significantly helpful to mental health
Aside from depression, anxiety, and self-esteem, what other mental health concerns are related to partner abuse?

32 of 36

Discussion: Conclusion

Relationship between physical/sexual abuse and depression, anxiety, and self-esteem.

Negative impact on mental health

Enhanced understanding of partner abuse and social support and how they relate to mental health
Interventions

Provide social support to those with low self-esteem

33 of 36

Questions?

34 of 36

References

Aguilar, R. J., & Nightingale, N. N. (1994). The impact of specific battering experiences on the self-esteem of abused women. Journal of Family Violence, 9(1), 35–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01531967

Alsaker, K., Kristoffersen K., Moen, B. E.,and Baste V. (2011). Threats and acts of intimate partner violence reported by users at Norwegian women’s shelters. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(5), 950–970. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510365864

Cascardi, M. & O’leary, K. D. (1992). Depressive symptomatology, self-esteem, and self-blame in battered women. Journal of Family Violence, 7(4), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00994617

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]. (2022, March 24). Fast facts: Preventing intimate partner violence. www.cdc.gov. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/fastfact.html#:~:text=Data%20from%20CDC%E2%80%99s%20National%20Intimate%20Partner%20and%20Sexual

35 of 36

References

Dutton, M. A., Goodman, L. A., & Bennett, L. (1999). Court-involved battered women’s responses to violence: The role of psychological, physical, and sexual abuse. Violence and Victims, 14(1), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.14.1.89

Hegarty, K., Gunn, J., Chondros, P., & Small, R. (2004). Association between depression and abuse by partners of women attending general practice: Descriptive, cross sectional survey. BMJ, 328(7440), 621–624. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.328.7440.621

Holmes, S. M., Johnson, N. L., Zlotnick, C., Sullivan, T. P., & Johnson, D. M. (2022). The association between demographic, mental health, and intimate partner violence victimization variables and undergraduate women’s intimate partner violence perpetration. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(1-2), 33–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520907354

Jaquier, V., Flanagan, J. C., & Sullivan, T. P. (2015). Anxiety and posttraumatic stress symptom pathways to substance use problems among community women experiencing intimate partner violence. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 28(4), 445–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2014.968562

36 of 36

References

Lin-Roark, I. H., Church, A. T., & McCubbin, L. D. (2015). Battered women’s evaluations of their intimate partners as a possible mediator between abuse and self-esteem. Journal of Family Violence, 30(2), 201–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-014-9661-y

Marshall, L. L. (1999). Effects of men’s subtle and overt psychological abuse on low-income women. Violence and Victims, 14(1), 69–88. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.14.1.69