Gender Differences in Career Progress among PhDs in Economics�

By Nicole Fortin�Vancouver School of Economics

University of British Columbia

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CWEC Luncheon at the 2023 CEA

Friday, June 2nd 2023

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UBC PhD's in Economics, circa 1987-90

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Francine Lafontaine

William Davidson Professor of Business Economics and Public Policy at the Ross School of Business, University of Michigan

Various Deanship Positions (2016-2022)

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Shelley Phipps

Professor

Dept. of Economics

Dalhousie University, CEA Fellow

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Denise Doiron

Professor

Dept. of Economics

University of New South Wales, Australia

Dept. Head (2013-2016)

Diana Price-Weymark

Assistant-Professor

Department of Economics

Vanderbilt University

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Mary O’Mahony

Professor of Applied Economics

King’s Business School, London

Dept. Head

Nicole Fortin

Professor

Vancouver School of Economics

University of British Columbia,

CEA Fellow

Diane Dupont

Professor

Dept. of Economics, Brock University

Various Deanship Positions (2013-2020)

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Maria Nimfa Mendoza

Associate- Professor

School of Economics

University of the Philippines

Kathleen Day

Associate-Professor

Dept. of Economics

University of Ottawa

Trends in Women’s Representation among Economics Faculty

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Source: Meade, Starr, and Bansak (2021) citing Chevalier (2020) for all series except New PhDs 1, which is from National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics (2011).

Figure 1. Women's shares of economics degrees and representation in economics faculty, 1966–2020

The upward trend has reversed post-2005

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Women make up about 1/3 of New PhDs in Economics

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Men still outnumber women by two to one 

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It is not only about the Math, but also the Importance of Money vs. People

• The share of women studying or pursuing careers in Economics lags that in other disciplines, also traditionally predominantly male, such as Mathematics, Geosciences, and Physical Sciences,
• as discussed in Ceci et al. (2014), Bayer and Rouse (2016), and Lundberg and Stearns (2019), Meade, Starr, and Bansak (2021)
• Only Computer Sciences does worse stalling below 18% (New PhDs) (Ginther and Kahn, 2018)
• Stock, Siegfried, and Finegan (2011) find that women (but not men) holding under-graduate degrees in Math are 41% more likely to complete their PhD in Economics
• Young men give greater importance to money and young women to people and society when choosing a career (Fortin, 2008)
• Prioritizing math skills and making money can be a turnoff for women, but not so much men (Bansak and Starr, 2010)

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“Women in Economics: Stalled Progress”

• The stalled progress of women in economics is a particular concern in the United States (Ginther and Kahn, 2004; Lundberg and Stearns, 2019)
• Lundberg and Stearns (2019) is one article out of 18 in the book “Women in Economics”
• US concerns are heightened by issues at very top schools
• Representation in the US is actually lower than in Europe (Auriol, Friebel, and Wilhelm, 2019)
• What about Canada?
• What are the possible explanations? Preferences or barriers
• Why should we care?

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Women have different perspectives, are drawn to different issues, and widen the scope of the discipline

• Arguably the field of Economics, in particular through Macroeconomic Policy, exerts a larger influence on economic activity and society
• Including women’s perspective in the mix is important
• Christine Lagarde, Managing Director IMF (2011-2019), President of the European Central Bank since 2019 .
• Janet Yellen, Chair of the US Federal Reserve (2014-2018), US Secretary of the Treasury since 2021.
• Many important economic issues and concerns have been championed by women
• The economics of children, health, environment, opioids: Janet Currie, Princeton University
• The economics of gender: Marianne Ferber, Claudia Goldin, Francine Blau, Marianne Bertrand, and many others
• RCTs in developing countries: Ester Duflo, MIT (Nobel 2019)

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Gender Differences in Career Progress: Road Map

1. Entry and Graduations from PhD Programs
2. Field of Specialization
3. First Jobs for Academics or Non-academics
4. Publish or Perish
5. Children
6. Recognition and Awards
7. Remedies

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Method: Secondary Sources and New Data

1. Review the abundant recent literature tracking PhDs in Economics and using tools from computational linguistics
1. Method:
1. Find a registry of PhDs in Economics
2. Follow their career through CVs
3. Trackback their publication records
2. Do this in reverse: Meade, Starr, and Bansak (2021): AEA P&P data; Card, DellaVigna, Funk, and Iriberri (2022) use the top-5 journals, 8 other general interest journals and 23 field journals
2. Supplement with own work using EconJobMarket (EJM) data featured in
• Fortin, Nicole, Thomas Lemieux, and Marit Rehavi. 2021. "Gender differences in fields of specialization and placement outcomes among PhDs in economics." AEA Papers and Proceedings. 111: 74-79.

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EconJobMarket (EJM) Applicants

• Data on PhD candidates who used EconJob Market (EJM) to find a job between 2007-2017
• About 2000-3000 candidates a year
• Candidate post CV, Job Market Paper, Research Statement, Teaching Statements (more recent)
• Recommenders post letters
• Information is made available to potential employers
• On EJM, gender is self-identified with three choices: female, male, or withheld
• Later, we complement with perceived gender as identified by others, for example with pronouns (she/her/hers), or using naming algorithms with non-gender-neutral first names

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EJM Data: Overall Gender Share of PhD Candidates �

On average, about 30% of Ph.D candidates self-identify as female

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Close to 15% withhold the information

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Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021

Gender Differences in Career Progress among PhDs in Economics�

Entry and Graduations from PhD Programs

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Contributing factors to the under-representation of women in PhD programs in Economics

• Work-life balance
• Lack of female role models
• Institutional barriers
• Hostile environment

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Contributing factors to the under-representation of women in PhD programs in Economics

• Work-life balance:
• time to degree completion increasing, pre-docs and post-docs lengthen time to first job and time to tenure
• formal pre-docs are relatively recent (post-2010), so there is little research on their impact, but it would likely apply to admission to top schools
• the usefulness and power relationship in pre-docs is now debated, they have likely culminated
• Lack of role models
• Institutional barriers
• Hostile environment

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EJM Data: Declining female share only in Top 20

• Small -0.015 (0.002) but statistically significant decline in female share post-2013 among the top 20 schools (in red)

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• Linked to pre-docs RA-ships??

Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021

Contributing factors to the under-representation of women in PhD programs in Economics

• Work-life balance
• Lack of female role models
• Hale and Regev (2014) use faculty and graduate students data for ten of the top US economics departments between 1987 and 2007, and find a positive causal impact of female faculty share (instrumented with male retirements) on the share of women graduating six years later
• Joergensen (2020), using Proquest Dissertations and Theses data, matches advisors from top-50 PhD programs between 1971-2003 to their students and found a negative impact of having a female advisor on getting first job at a top-50 economics department, but no added effect for a female student
• Institutional barriers
• Hostile environment

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Contributing factors to the under-representation of women in PhD programs in Economics

• Work-life balance
• Lack of role models
• Institutional barriers
• Boustan and Langan (2019) utilize CSWEP data on graduates of 88 PhD programs in the United States from 1994 to 2017, together with hand-collected faculty rosters data from PhD-granting economics departments.
• Departments with better outcomes for women have more women faculty, facilitate advisor-student contact, provide collegial research seminars, and include senior faculty with increased awareness of gender issues.
• Stock and Siegfried (2014) find that women have higher attrition rates in PhD programs than men (40% of both do not complete).

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Contributing factors to the under-representation of women in PhD programs in Economics

• Gender roles
• Lack of role models
• Work-life balance
• Institutional barriers
• Hostile environment
• Women are more likely to experience harassment and exclusion from professional networks (CSWEP, 2018)
• Wu (2018, 2020) studies gender-based discrimination and harassment on Economics Job Market Rumors and triggers some changes in August 2017

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Study of EconJobRumors (Wu, 2017)

• Wu (2017) studies gender stereotyping on the Economics Job Market Rumors [EJMR] forum.
• Combine methods from text mining, machine learning and econometrics
• Words with the strongest associations with female are about personal characteristics, mostly inappropriate, many sexual in nature
• Expose the issues of explicit biases in an (anonymous) social media forum meant to be academic and professional.

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“maquereau”

Source: Wu (2018)

�An NYT article (Wolfers, August 2017) led to moderation efforts on the EJMR forum, and the adoption of code-of-conduct��

Source: Wu (2020)

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Gender Differences in Career Progress among PhDs in Economics�

Field of Specialization

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Gendered Field of Specializations�

• There is an over-representation of women in the Fields of Health, Labour, Development and Public Finance among Assistant-Professor in Canada
• Gendered fields of specialization may lead to crowding out effect

CWEN Survey of Assistant-Professors by Field (2012-2016)

Percentage female

Source: O’Neil, CEA 2018

31.6%

EJM Subsample Data

• Subsample job applicants
• Close to 5,000 Economics PhD graduates who sought employment on Econ Job Market (EJM) between 2010 and 2017
• Select those who graduated from 82 North-American institutions ranked among the top 200 in the RePec Rankings
• include 6 Canadian schools

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• Two sources of fields of specialization
• Applicants’ first self-declared field of specialization on their job application posted on the EJM website
• Applicants’ name matched to the yearly December JEL list of PhD graduates

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Most EJM applicants who withhold gender are perceived as males

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29.9% self-identify as female, but

32.2% are perceived as female

(feminine first names, pronouns, etc.)

Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021

Job Market Experience�

• McFall, Murray-Close, Willis, and Chen (2017) describe job market experiences of new PhD economists, 2007–10 (800-900/year) and obtain weight to correct for selectivity into survey.
• Conduct a survey of new entrants (39% response rate) to obtain outcomes related to applications, interviews, fly-outs, and job offers
• Does affirmative action for women lead to more interviews and fly-out, but not to job offers?
• Gender coefficients change sign and are imprecisely estimated.

Source: McFall, Murray-Close, Willis, and Chen (2015)

EJM Subsample: Share of Women across Fields of Specialization

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Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021

EJM Subsample: Under-Representation of Women in Macro/Intl./Finance is increasing

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Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021

Hostile Environment? Differences in Women’s Responses to the AEA Climate Survey across Primary Field of Research

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Unwanted advances: “Another economist or economics student made unwanted attempts to establish a dating, romantic, or

sexual relationship with you despite your efforts to discourage it”

Source: AEA Climate Survey (2019)

Table 12 (Extract)

Within-field Trend in Female Share is correlated with AEA Climate survey variable�

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Note: For clarity, the figure truncates Economic History and General/Teaching, whose female trends are 0.06 and 0.04 respectively; these are relatively sparse fields.

Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021

Gender Differences in Career Progress among PhDs in Economics

First Jobs for Academics or Non-academics

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EJM Subsample

• Placement outcomes
• First permanent placement following PhD studies (Fresh PhDs)
• from web search of PhD graduates (CVs and employer’s posting) and placement lists of 64 institutions on our list
• Positions: assistant-professor (by various tiers of school rankings), teaching stream academic positions, non-bridging post-docs, non-academic research positions, private sector economist, etc.
• Employer: Institution, department, or employer, including name
• Distinguish: University/College (Asst Prof, Lecturer), Central Banks and Multi-lateral Development Banks, Post-Docs, Public and Private Sector

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Gender Differences in Placement Outcomes �(EJM Applicants 2010-2017 Subsample)

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More than 55% of applicants find Academic jobs (Asst Prof or Lecture)

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Men are 24% more likely then women to take a job at a Central Bank/Multilateral Development Bank

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Women are 17% more likely than men to take a non-academic position

Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021 ** p <0.05 *** p <0.01

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Gender Differences in Placement Outcomes �(EJM Applicants 2010-2017 Subsample)

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Men are 10% more likely than women to take a position at a research institution

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Men are 27% more likely than women to take a position at a top 50 research institution

Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021 *** p <0.01

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Explanatory Factors: Gender Differences in “Quality” Ranking of PhD Granting Institution

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Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021 *** p <0.01

More male PhD candidates are coming from Top 10 schools

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More female PhD candidates are coming from lower than

Top 100 schools

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Oaxaca-Blinder Decomposition of Male-Female Differences in Placement Outcomes�

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Source: Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi, 2021

Fields of specialization account for the larger share (75%-132%) of explained differences

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Ranking of the PhD degree granting 2^nd most powerful explanatory factor aside from Top 50 Research Institutions

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From 30% to 72% (gray) of the gender differences remain unexplained

Fortin, Lemieux, and Rehavi (2021): Main Findings

• Fields of specialization, ranking of PhD Institution (4 cat), long PhD (7+ years) can account for 28% to 67% of the gender gap in placement outcomes
• Outside of Top 50 institutions, as a portion of the explained gap, gender differences in fields of specialization account for the entirety of the female under-representation in assistant-professor positions,
• Macro and Quantitative Methods are the fields with the most explanatory power
• For Top 50 institutions, the applicants’ PhD institution, in particular coming from a Top 10 institution, has more explanatory power than their field of specialization.
• Findings are consistent with the notion that top institutions hire top applicants irrespective of field.
• These top institutions have less hidden bias.

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Bai, Esche, MacLeod, and Shi (2022)

• Have access to 6,320 application packages from 2013 to 2019 for a single program, with undergraduate transcripts, demographic information, a resume, essays, GRE scores, English proficiency scores, and subjective evaluations provided by at least three references, as well as 20,234 recommendation letters.
• Women comprise 31.3% of the applicant pool, of whom 18.2% are admitted to a top-ten program economics PhD program.
• Ivy Plus graduates are twice as likely to be admitted to a Top 10 graduate program and are much more likely to obtain an assistant professor position at a Top 10 program upon PhD completion.
• Among the four gender (female/male)-nationality (US/Non-US) groups, a significant negative coefficient for a Top 20 Assistant-Prof position is found only for only non-US-females, which the authors have difficulty interpreting.

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Gender Differences in Career Progress among PhDs in Economics

Publish or Perish, Impact or Perish

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Research Productivity Is Hard

• Conley and Önder (2019) start with a census of 14,299 economics PhD recipients (1986-2000) from 152 US and 2 Canadian institutions and find only 7,154 of those as authors of the 48,938 papers in EconLit journals six years later.
• They show that only the top 10–20 percent of a typical graduating class are likely to accumulate a research record leading to tenure at a medium-level (top-100) research university.
• But not all the stars come from high-ranking universities!
• Likely better to be among the top 5 students at a Top-30 institution than in the top 30 students at a Top-5 institution
• The authors suggest that students thinking about applying to PhD programs in economics should have “Plan B’s” for every stage of their journey.

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Women as co-authors in AEA P&P

• Meade, Starr, and Bansak (2021) collect data from the Papers and Proceedings (P&P), an annual volume of the proceedings of the AEA annual meetings, which has been since 1911
• Women's share of contributions to the P&P has risen steadily over time, although at an average of 26.4 percent in 2011–20,
• More or less in line with their rising shares of associate and full professors
• But remains well below women's one-third share of new PhDs in economics.
• The increases in representation over the past 20 years have occurred outside of CSWEP-organized sessions.

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Source: Meade, Starr, and Bansak, AEA P&P data, (2021)

Figure 3. Average number of P&P contributors per year (left axis) and women as a share of all contributors (right axis)

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Source: Meade, Starr, and Bansak, AEA P&P data, (2021)

Figure 5. Average number of P&P contributors per year (left axis) and women as a share of all contributors (right axis)

Co-authorship is booming, with the share of P&P papers having four or more authors rising especially rapidly, including by mixed-gender teams.

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Publishing while female

• Hengel (2022) finds that women are not rewarded for better, crisper, and more readable writing.
• Card et al. (2020) and Koffi (2021) also find that female-authored papers receive more citations.

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Female economists receive less credit toward tenure from co-authored work�

• Sarsons (2017) uses a sample of 574 academic economists' CVs (1985 - 2014) from Top 30 PhD-granting economics departments in the U.S.
• Findings show that co-authorships with males have less value for women to obtain tenure.
• Sarsons et al. (2021) confirm that women are less likely to get tenure the more they co-author.

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Source: Sarsons (2017)

Gender Tenure Delays even among Top 5 authors

• Heckman and Moktan (2020) state “The difference in tenure hazards and time to tenure across genders suggests that female faculty receive lower and possibly more uncertain rewards than their male counterparts for the same level of publications.”
• Their gender effects become insignificant when controlling for the total number of unique co-authors, a female absorbing variable according to Ductor, Goyal, and Prummer (2018).

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Improvement over time in the female promotion disadvantage??

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• Ginther and Kahn (2014) use data from the 1981–2008 waves of the Survey of Doctorate Recipients (SDR).

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• In economics, being female carries lower raw probabilities:
• 14.3 percentage points for tenure
• 26.6 percentage points for promotion to full
• These do not change very much by adding covariates or with different PhD vintages

Source: Ginther and Kahn (2014)

Promotion to Associate Lower for Women

• Ginther and Kahn (2021) using data from Academic Analytics found that women in economics were 15% less likely to be promoted to associate professor after controlling for cumulative publications, citations, grants and grant dollars
• Likely driven by less research-intensive institutions, where women are 45% less likely to be promoted

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Table 2—Proportional Hazard Estimates of Gender Differences in Promotion to Associate Professor by Field and Institution Type, 2009–2018

Notes: Hazard ratios and robust standard errors in parentheses from Cox proportional hazard model estimates of promotion to associate professor. Full sample uses Table 1, column 4, specification; very high research activity and research less intensive use specification in Table 1, columns 5 and 6, respectively. Models include controls for department

Source: Ginther and Kahn (2021)

Gendered Words from RateMyProfessor: http://benschmidt.org/profGender/#

WORD: OUTSTANDING

WORD: ATTRACTIVE

Gender Differences in Career Progress among PhDs in Economics

Children

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Child care is a full-time job to be shared

• Women with PhDs in Economics will have salaries in the top 5% of the income distribution
• Many may very well be in the quarter of households where the “wife earns more” (Bertrand, Kamenica, and Pan, 2015)
• This suggests getting a job first, having children later, and buying childcare as needed, but the clock is ticking …
• Mothers will be surprized that spending time with their child may be more enjoyable that spending time with their colleagues (Kuziemko, Pan, Shen, and Washington, 2018)
• Resist the “Persistent Appeal of Housewifery” and do not “Opt-out” (Fortin, 2015)

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Current Salaries across Disciplines

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Business Schools

Source: Author’s compilation of GlassDoor data.

Gender-Neutral Parental Leave

• Gender-neutral parental leave policies were intended to create a more level playing field by creating incentives for both parents to take time off for childcare, but the tenure clock stopping feature of these policies has backfired
• Antecol, Bedard, and Stearns (2018) using a dataset on the universe of assistant professor hires at top-50 economics departments from 1980–2005, show that these tenure clock stopping policies substantially reduced female tenure rates while substantially increasing male tenure rates.
• Fathers could take short parental leaves, mothers took longer ones, but both parents got the same extension on their tenure clock
• Clock stopping should require a minimum time on childcare duties

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Gender Differences in Career Progress among PhDs in Economics�

Recognitions and Awards

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Gender Bias among Fellows of the Econometric Society

• Card, DellaVigna, Funk, and Iriberri (2022) study the selection of Fellows of the Econometric Society, using a new data set of publications and citations for over 40,000 actively publishing economists.
• They show that the probability of selection as a Fellow as turned from negative (1933–1979: only 3 women selected) to neutral (1980 to 2010) to positive in the past decade
• There has been an over a 100% increase in the probability of selection for female authors relative to males with similar publications and citations.

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FIGURE 2.—Female share of active scholars, nominees, and newly elected Fellows to the Econometric Society.

Source: Card, DellaVigna, Funk, and Iriberri (2022)

Gender Bias among Fellows of the Econometric Society

• The authors attribute the change to the Society’s Nominating Committee mandate in 2012
• “The committee is expected to nominate candidates who might have been overlooked, with special consideration to geographical and field diversity. Gender was recently added to the list and it is now in the mandate of the 2012 Fellows Nominating Committee.”
• For the single-authored papers, Card and co-authors find suggestive evidence of more weight on such papers for the selection of females as ES Fellows.
• Implicitly acknowledging that their excellence criteria are not gender-neutral

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Highest Honour

• In 2019, the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel was awarded to Esther Duflo (MIT), the second woman and youngest-ever recipient to get such an honor.
• In Duflo’s own words, in a press conference in Stockholm, following the announcement of the Prize:
• ‘Showing that it is possible for a woman to succeed and be recognized for success I hope it is going to inspire many, many other women to continue working and many other men to give them the respect that they deserve like every single human being’

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Gender Differences in Career Progress among PhDs in Economics�

Remedies

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Mentorship and networking opportunities

• Lack of role models
• Many RCTs have shown that mentoring, or sometimes nudges, helps attract and retain “Women in Economics”
• Blau, Currie, Croson, Ginther, 2010; Avilova and Goldin, 2018;
• Buckles, 2019; Porter and Serra, 2020; Bedard, Dodd, and Lundberg, 2021, among others
• Hostile environment
• Many associations (AEA, CEA, SOLE, etc.) and conferences (NBER) have implemented codes of conduct where disrespectful behavior is not allowed
• NBER chair making effort to allow more diverse discussants
• Several Departments have formed “Women in Economics” groups for informal gathering

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Deliberate Effort Needed to Increase Diversity

• “Affirmative Action”
• Several Economics Department look for ways (e.g., relaxing field stringency) to include more women
• Because of the under-representations of women at higher academic ranks, deliberate effort is required
• Need to move away from a zero-sum game mindset; faculty/institutions need to provide incentives to increase female representation.
• As shown by the Econometric Society stance, nominating committees of various associations can make an effort to reach out to overlooked groups (geography and gender)
• Hopefully, this is just the beginning!

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Thank you!

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References

• Antecol, Heather, Kelly Bedard, and Jenna Stearns. "Equal but inequitable: Who benefits from gender-neutral tenure clock stopping policies?." American Economic Review 108, no. 9 (2018): 2420-2441.
• Auriol, Emmanuelle, Guido Friebel, and Sascha Wilhelm. "Women in European economics." Women in economics (2019).
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• Bansak, Cynthia, and Martha Starr. "Gender differences in predispositions towards economics." Eastern Economic Journal 36 (2010): 33-57.
• Bayer, Amanda, and Cecilia Elena Rouse. "Diversity in the economics profession: A new attack on an old problem." Journal of Economic Perspectives 30, no. 4 (2016): 221-242.
• Bedard, Kelly, Jacqueline Dodd, and Shelly Lundberg. "Can positive feedback encourage female and minority undergraduates into economics?." In AEA papers and proceedings, vol. 111, pp. 128-32. 2021.
• Bertrand, Marianne, Emir Kamenica, and Jessica Pan. "Gender identity and relative income within households." The Quarterly Journal of Economics 130, no. 2 (2015): 571-614.

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References

• Blau, Francine D., Janet M. Currie, Rachel T. A. Croson, and Donna K. Ginther. "Can mentoring help female assistant professors? Interim results from a randomized trial." American Economic Review 100, no. 2 (2010): 348-352.
• Boustan, Leah, and Andrew Langan. "Variation in women's success across PhD programs in economics." Journal of Economic Perspectives 33, no. 1 (2019): 23-42.
• Buckles, Kasey. "Fixing the leaky pipeline: Strategies for making economics work for women at every stage." Journal of economic perspectives 33, no. 1 (2019): 43-60.
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References

• Fortin, Nicole M. "Gender role attitudes and women's labor market participation: Opting-out, aids, and the persistent appeal of housewifery." Annals of Economics and Statistics/Annales d'Économie et de Statistique 117/118 (2015): 379-401
• Fortin, Nicole, Thomas Lemieux, and Marit Rehavi. 2021. "Gender differences in fields of specialization and placement outcomes among PhDs in economics." AEA Papers and Proceedings. 111: 74-79.
• Ginther, Donna K., and Shulamit Kahn. "Women in economics: moving up or falling off the academic career ladder?." Journal of Economic perspectives 18, no. 3 (2004): 193-214.
• Ginther, Donna K., and Shulamit Kahn. 2014. “Academic Women’s Careers in the Social Sciences.” In The Economics of Economists: Institutional Setting, Individual Incentives, and Future Prospects, edited by Alessandro Lanteri and Jack Vromen, 285–315. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Ginther, Donna K., and Shulamit Kahn. "Women in academic economics: Have we made progress?." In AEA Papers and Proceedings, 111 (2021): 138-142.
• Hale, Galina, and Tali Regev. "Gender ratios at top PhD programs in economics." Economics of Education Review 41 (2014): 55-70.
• Heckman, James J., and Sidharth Moktan. "Publishing and promotion in economics: The tyranny of the top five." Journal of Economic Literature 58, no. 2 (2020): 419-70.

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References

• Joergensen, Emma. "How Gender-based Relationships Between a Student and Advisor in Economics Ph. D. Programs Impact Future Student Success." (2020). UC-Santa Barbara.
• Koffi, Marlène. "Gendered citations at top economic journals." In AEA Papers and Proceedings, vol. 111, pp. 60-64. 2021.
• Kuziemko, Ilyana, Jessica Pan, Jenny Shen, and Ebonya Washington. The mommy effect: Do women anticipate the employment effects of motherhood?. No. w24740. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2018.
• Lundberg, Shelly, and Jenna Stearns. "Women in economics: Stalled progress." Journal of Economic Perspectives 33, no. 1 (2019): 3-22.
• McFall, Brooke Helppie, Marta Murray-Close, Robert J. Willis, and Uniko Chen. "Is it all worth it? The experiences of new PhDs on the job market, 2007–10." The Journal of economic education 46, no. 1 (2015): 83-104.
• Meade, Ellen E., Martha Starr, and Cynthia Bansak (2021). "Changes in Women's Representation in Economics: New Data from the AEA Papers & Proceedings," FEDS Notes. Washington: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, August 06, 2021, https://doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.2975.
• Porter, Catherine, and Danila Serra. "Gender differences in the choice of major: The importance of female role models." American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 12, no. 3 (2020): 226-254.
• Sarsons, Heather. "Recognition for group work: Gender differences in academia." American Economic Review 107, no. 5 (2017): 141-145.

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References

• Sarsons, Heather, Klarita Gërxhani, Ernesto Reuben, and Arthur Schram. "Gender differences in recognition for group work." Journal of Political Economy 129, no. 1 (2021): 101-147.
• Stock, Wendy A., John J. Siegfried, and T. Aldrich Finegan. "Completion rates and time-to-degree in economics PhD programs." American Economic Review 101, no. 3 (2011): 176-187.
• Stock, Wendy A., and John J. Siegfried. "Fifteen years of research on graduate education in economics: What have we learned?." The Journal of Economic Education 45, no. 4 (2014): 287-303.
• Wu, Alice H. "Gendered language on the economics job market rumors forum." In AEA Papers and Proceedings, vol. 108, (2018): 175-179.
• Wu, Alice H. "Gender bias among professionals: an identity-based interpretation." Review of Economics and Statistics 102, no. 5 (2020): 867-880. 11 Academic women's careers in the social sciences

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