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PRIMING, VALENCE AND PROCESSING
Does the Priming and Valence of an Object Effect Emotional Processing when
Presented Together?
School of Education, Language and Psychology, York St John University.
Psychology BSc
Dr Matthew Coxon
21 st May 2021.
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Abstract
Previous literature has not investigated, both, priming and valence on emotional
processing. As a result, the present paper aims to fill this gap. The hypothesis proposed that
negatively charged words (negative valence) will significantly reduce the number of correct
responses when assessing perceptual processing. The paper also proposed that previously
primed words will significantly reduce the number of correct responses when assessing
perceptual processing. The study used a 2x3 within-subjects design, gathering data from 18
participants. Participants were York St John psychology students or registered on LinkedIn.
Participants who did not complete the experiment were removed. The study requested the age
and gender of the participants. Participants completed the emotional word identification task
and the implicit encoding memory task. Descriptive statistics and Levene's test were
calculated. Descriptives were at an acceptable level. Valence and priming did not violate
Mauchly’s test of sphericity, the sphericity assumed value was used. The interaction (priming
x valence) did violate Mauchly’s test of sphericity, therefore the Greenhouse–Geisser value
was used. A 2x3 within-subjects ANOVA analysed the data. The interaction was significant;
F (2,34) =13.78, p=<0.01, =0.49. Post Hoc T-tests were used with Bonferroni correction. A
significant effect was found for the negative valence condition; t (17) =-4.60, P=0.003. Future
research should conduct the previous study with participants with ADHD.
[Word Count: 2526]
Keywords: Valence, Priming, Emotional Processing, Implicit Association, Gorilla, 2x3
within-subjects ANOVA, T-Test, Bonferroni Correction.
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Introduction
This paper explores the effect of priming and valence on emotional processing when
presented together. Priming is defined as the previous stimuli affecting the response to new
stimuli (Bermeitinger, 2016). Valence is classed as the emotional charge of a word (APA,
2020). Based on the underpinning theory, valence and priming would reduce the number of
correct responses. Masked priming may reduce the number of correct words due to the
facilitation of memories, hindering the recognition of stimuli (Verywellmind, 2020). The
valence of a word makes it more memorable due to enhanced arousal (Lavoie, 2013).
Extensive research demonstrates the effect of valence on emotional processing.
Zeelenberg et al. (2006) utilised a perceptual identification task to disentangle bias from
enhanced processing. Twenty-nine participants completed 9 conditions, containing 16 trials
in each condition. The study found emotionally charged targets were identified quicker than
neutral targets. The positive or negative valence of a word influenced performance,
confirmed by a two-way ANOVA. Post-hoc Tukey indicated the foil condition had no
significant effect on performance. As a result, Zeelenberg et al. (2006) show that valence
affects emotional processing because the neutral stimuli had no significant effect. Hamman et
al. (1999) explained the results through the stronger representation of an emotionally
significant word. The alternative explanation reduces the internal validity. Also, Zeelenberg
(2006) fails to define the concept of valence. The absent definition reduces the clarity of the
research because the paper fails to define the independent variable. Vuilleumier (2005)
reviewed the evidence that used brain scans to assess how selective attention is affected by
the emotional charge of stimuli. The amygdala became increased in activity when presented
with emotionally charged stimuli. Vuilleumier (2005) shows that valence affects emotional
processing because the amygdala is associated with fear. As a result, the human survival
principle ensures stimuli that threaten a human existence becomes easily identified
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(Buchanan & Adolphs, 2002). Eckerman (1981) states that fMRI scans have low temporal
validity. As a result, fMRI may not be the most effective method to objectively measure
valence on emotional processing. Richards et al. (1999) has criticised Vuilleumier (2005) as
none of the experiments offered any support for the prediction of a threat-related implicit
memory bias in high trait anxiety, conflicting with findings of other literature. Kensinger and
Schacter (2006) found similar findings to Vuilleumier (2005). The aim was to use brain scans
to see what areas of the brain react to arousing stimuli. The researchers employed twenty-one
participants. The participants were shown positive, negative, and neutral photos, whilst under
an fMRI. The study found positive valence was associated with the prefrontal cortex.
Although, research has explored alternative explanations that may be considered more
feasible (Kauschke, Bahn, Vesker, & Schwarzer, 2019). As a result, this questions the
internal validity.
Research into the effect of priming on emotional processing is varied. Hart et al.
(2010) used MRI scans on fourteen volunteers aged 18-36 (M=25.3 years). The sample
includes five males and nine females. Participants carried out a Stroop test, containing neutral
and aversive stimuli. The images were presented on the same device and the images were the
same size. The study found previous words with emotional priming affect the recall of words.
Hart et al. (2010) show the effect of priming on emotional processing because previous
stimuli affected the emotional processing of new stimuli. Although, this effect is dependent
on the emotional significance of the stimuli. Thus, questioning whether it is priming or
valence that affects recall. Hart et al. (2010) used a small sample. As a result, a substantial
effect size may not be obtained. However, the sample included males and females. The
research is more generalisable due to males and females, instead of a one-sided sample.
Matthews and Southall (1991) investigated the effect of depression on recognition memory.
the study utilised patients with depression. 10 participants (3 men, 7 women), with long-
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standing depression, were referred to Stafford District Psychological Services. The study
employed a semantic priming paradigm, finding that depressives showed enhanced priming
of emotionally charged words. This study fails to account for the participant’s differing levels
of depression, therefore would the same results be obtained for different levels of depression.
Mathews and Southall (1991) could be improved for having different conditions for different
levels of depression. Rohr et al. (2012) found similar results to Matthew and Southall. The
aim was to investigate the specificity of emotion processing, under the condition of limited
awareness. 81 Participants (26 men, 55 women) were recruited. The experiment used a
modified affective priming task. Participants were asked to categorise the target emotion. In
all conditions, participants were affected by emotional primes. Research supports priming on
the implicit association, using pictures instead of words (Spruyt, 2002).
Rationale, Aims and Hypotheses
`Previous research investigates the effect of valence or priming on emotional
processing. The present paper uses valence and priming in the same experiment. This will
address the gap in the literature. Based on previous literature, the current paper proposes the
following hypothesis:
H 1 Negatively charged words (negative valence) will significantly reduce the number of
correct responses when assessing perceptual processing.
H 2 Previously primed words will significantly reduce the number of correct responses when
assessing perceptual processing.
Method
Design
The study used a 2x3 within-participants design. Two independent variables (IV) were
used (priming and valence condition). Valence contained three levels: positive, negative, and
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positive unprimed. Skew and kurtosis were acceptable. Although, the skew is slightly
negative.
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics
Valence Priming M SD
Negative
Prime 0.78 0.24
Unprimed 0.88 0.20
Neutral
Prime 0.85 0.20
Unprimed 0.80 0.17
Positive
Prime 0.87 0.17
Unprimed 0.81 0.17
Notes: M=Mean. SD= Standard Deviation. Dependent variable=the number of correct
responses.
ANOVA
A factorial ANOVA was conducted to compare the main effects of priming, valence,
and the interaction effect (priming x valence). There was no statistically significant main
effect on the number of correct responses due to valence; F(1.40, 34) =0.37, p=0.62, 2 =0.02.
There was no statistically significant main effect on the number of correct responses due to
priming; F(1,17)=0.03, p=0.86, 2 =0.002. There was a significant interaction between
valence and priming; F (2,34) =13.78, p=<0.01, 2 =0.49.
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by using a Bonferroni combined with the T-test because the chances of using a T-Test three
times increases the chance of error. Therefore, multiplying the significance by the number of
T-Tests accounts for the increased error, increasing the validity of the results.
Closing Remarks
The present paper found a significant effect in the interaction between priming and
valence. Primed stimuli were correctly identified more than unprimed stimuli, except for
neutral words, supporting previous research (Hart et al., 2010; Matthews and Southall, 1991).
The study has several weaknesses, including the failure to exclude participants with ADHD
(Searight, 2000). As a result, future research into the role of valence and priming in
perceptual processing should conduct the previous study with ADHD participants.
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References
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Lavoie, M. E., & O'Connor, K. P. (2013). Effect of emotional valence on episodic memory
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Appendix
Table 1
Ethical Issues
Ethical Issue Solution
Informed Consent A consent form was created and presented through
gorilla. Participants were asked if they were happy to
continue. After, the participants had to tick the boxes to
start the projects.
Protection From Harm Participants may feel worthless due to not being able to
complete the task. As a result, the present paper states
that the participant does not have to. answer the
questions if they do not want to.
Right to Withdraw Participants may not be aware that they have the right to
withdraw. Therefore, the experiment explains what will
be expected. The participants can withdraw during the
experiment, however, participants cannot withdraw their
data after the experiment. This is due to the lack of
pseudonyms, meaning data cannot be identified.
Confidentiality/Anonymity Participants were not asked for a pseudonym, therefore
the results from their participation were not linked to
their identity, making the data anonymous. Data was not
kept longer than was necessary.
Raising Queries Participants were presented with a consent form and
experiment information sheet containing the details of
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the researcher, the supervisor, module leader and ethics
supervisor.
Deception Participants were presented with experiment
information and a consent form, allowing for a detailed
procedure of the experiment. In addition to how the
information will be used.
Notes. Code of Practice and Research Integrity (York St John University, 2020). Research
Ethics Policy (York St John University, 2020).