Scientists’ and policy experts’ statement: Gene editing is not “precision breeding” and the term is misleading
September 2022
We, the undersigned scientists and policy experts, wish to express our opposition to the increasing use of the term “precision breeding” to describe gene editing (or genome editing), both in the UK and the EU.
In the UK, the government has launched a bill to weaken or remove regulatory controls around (“deregulate”) gene editing. It is called the Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) Bill.[1] In the EU, various groups lobbying for the deregulation of gene editing have also adopted the term “precision breeding” to describe and promote the technology.[2]
This term is technically and scientifically inaccurate and therefore misleads Parliament, regulators, and the public. This is because gene editing is
1) not precise, and
2) not breeding
– as explained below.
1) “Precision”: The only aspect of gene editing that is precise is the initial double-strand cut in the DNA, which can be targeted to a specific site. But different types of unintended damage also accumulate at the various stages of the gene editing procedure, at both the on-target site (the intended gene editing site) and at off-target sites (elsewhere in the genome of the organism). A large number of peer-reviewed studies reveal unintended genetic changes from gene editing.[3] A review of the literature shows that gene editing-induced changes are different from changes that occur in natural breeding (conventional breeding between sexually compatible organisms), including mutagenesis breeding, because gene editing makes the whole genome accessible to changes, whereas in natural breeding, some regions of the genome are protected against mutations.[4] Recent research in plants (not involving gene editing) confirmed that in natural breeding, mutations are not random and that certain regions of the genome involved in important processes are protected from mutations.[5]
The findings of these studies are not contested; they are generally accepted by scientists working in the field and indeed form the knowledge baseline from which scientists are working to improve the precision and predictability of gene editing.
Scientific concerns around the lack of precision of gene editing in plants are focused around the ability of the technology to change gene functioning in ways that could change the plant’s biochemical pathways, leading to the production of unanticipated toxins or allergens.[6]
Concerns around gene editing in animals include health risks and welfare issues affecting the gene-edited animals themselves,[7] as well as health risks to consumers of meat and dairy products from the animals.
2) “Breeding”: Gene editing is a laboratory-based artificial genetic modification procedure that involves direct human intervention in the genome. Specifically, gene editing is conducted on plant cells grown in dishes, into which the gene-editing tool is introduced to carry out the intended genetic alterations. Whole plants are then grown from those genetically manipulated cells. It is therefore evident that the gene editing process bears no resemblance to “breeding” as the word is normally defined and understood.[8]
Given all of the above, the term “precision breeding” as applied to gene editing is misleading, and its use is often intended to mislead. It appears to have been coined not as a purely descriptive term, but as a marketing term, in order to persuade the public and regulators that gene-editing technology is natural, accurate, controllable, and therefore safe. However, the evidence base for these claims is lacking and on the contrary, there is strong evidence that supports the application of stringent regulations to gene-edited plants and animals. They should include a requirement for thorough risk assessments of effects on human and animal health and the environment, as well as a requirement for full traceability and clear on-package GMO labelling of the end products.
In conclusion, the term “precision breeding” should be deleted from the title of the UK government’s bill and replaced with terminology that is accurate and purely descriptive, to form a title such as “Genetic Modification Technologies (Food, Feed and Agriculture) Bill”. Beyond the context of this particular bill, governments and regulators worldwide should avoid using marketing terms such as “precision breeding” to describe gene editing and instead use scientifically and technically accurate terms with broadly agreed definitions, such as gene or genome editing, genetic modification, and genetic engineering.
Note: The signatories to this statement are signing in an individual capacity and not as representatives of their respective organisations. There is no suggestion that the organisations do or do not hold these views.
Further signatories are welcome to apply: https://forms.gle/17VAFQvav6Avsi1B6
More information: Dr Michael Antoniou antoniou108@gmail.com
Signatories
1. Dr Michael Antoniou, Head, Gene Expression and Therapy Group, King’s College London, UK
2. Professor Andy Stirling, Professor of Science and Technology Policy, Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, UK
3. Dr Tom Wakeford, Europe Director, ETC Group; Hon. Associate Professor, University of Exeter, UK
4. Dr Ulrich E. Loening, Hon. Research Fellow (School of Engineering), University of Edinburgh, UK; retired: Reader in Molecular Biology; Director of the Centre for Human Ecology
5. Professor Rubens Nodari, Professor, Dept of Plant Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Brazil
6. Professor Philip H. Howard, Professor, Michigan State University, USA
7. Professor Carlo Leifert, Adjunct Professor, Southern Cross University, Australia
8. Professor Julia Wright, Associate Professor, Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Coventry University, UK
9. Dr L. R. B. Mann, Senior Lecturer in Biochemistry and in Environmental Studies (retired), University of Auckland, New Zealand
10. Dr Stanley W. B. Ewen, Histopathologist (retired), UK
11. Professor Jack Stilgoe, Professor of Science and Technology Policy, University College London, UK
12. Dr Angelika Hilbeck, Senior Scientist and Lecturer, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETHZ), Switzerland
13. Dr Sophie Gerber, Researcher, INRAE, France
14. Dr Martha Mertens, Expert, Institute for Biodiversity Network (IBN), Regensburg, Germany
15. Professor Amaury Lambert, Professor, Ecole Normale Supérieure, France
16. Dr Stéphanie Mariette, Scientist, INRAE, France
17. David Gee, Visiting Fellow, Centre for Pollution Research and Policy, Brunel University London, UK
18. Dr François Bonhomme, Research Director Emeritus, CNRS, France
19. Professor Erik Millstone, Emeritus Professor, Science Policy Research Unit, University of Sussex, UK
20. Professor Jack Heinemann, Professor, University of Canterbury, New Zealand
21. Dr Susan Bardocz (retired), Hungary
22. Professor Emeritus Dr Stephan Rist, Professor Emeritus, University of Bern, Switzerland
23. Professor Demetrios Kouretas, Professor of Toxicology, University of Thessaly, Greece
24. Dr Dimitris Tsoukalas, President, European Institute of Molecular Medicine, Greece
25. Professor Tsatsakis Aristidis, Professor, University of Crete, Greece
26. Professor Anca Oana Docea, Associate Professor of Toxicology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Craiova, Romania
27. Dr Judy Carman, Director, Institute of Health and Environmental Research, Kensington Park, South Australia
28. Dr Stathis Arapostathis, Associate Professor, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
29. Professor Konstantinos C. Makris, Associate Professor of Environmental Health, Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus
30. Professor Giorgos Balias, Associate Professor, Harokopio University of Athens, Greece
31. Dr Allison Wilson, Science Director, The Bioscience Resource Project, USA
32. Dr Jonathan Latham, Executive Director, The Bioscience Resource Project, USA
33. Dr E. Ann Clark, Associate Professor (retired), Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Canada
34. Professor Philip Regal, Professor Emeritus, University of Minnesota, USA
35. Professor Hugh Lehman, Associate Professor (retired), University of Guelph, Canada
36. Professor Dr Hardy Vogtmann, Project Leader, Naturschutzbund Deutschland (NABU), Germany
37. Professor András Székács, Board Member, Hungarian Society of Ecotoxicology, Hungary
38. Dr Adrian Ely, Reader in Technology and Sustainability, University of Sussex, UK
39. Professor Brian Wynne, Professor Emeritus, Lancaster University, UK
40. Professor Vyvyan Howard, Professor Emeritus, Ulster University, UK
41.Dr Rosa Binimelis, Scientist, Spain
42. Dr Yves Bertheau, Directeur de recherche honoraire INRA at MNHN, France
43. Dr Nicolas Defarge, Postdoc, IICAR-CONICET-UNR, Argentina
44. Dr Hervé Perdry, Maître de conferences, Université Paris-Saclay/Inserm, France
45. Professor Graham Dutfield, Professor of International Governance, University of Leeds, UK
46. Professor Lluis Quintana-Murci, Professor, Institut Pasteur, France
47. Professor Pierre-Henri Gouyon, Professor, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
48. Dr Ricarda Steinbrecher, Co-Director, Econexus, UK
49. Professor Ignacio Chapela, Associate Professor, Dept of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, UC Berkeley, USA
50. Dr Bruce Lanphear, MD, MPH, Professor, Simon Fraser University, Canada
51. Professor Dr Johann G. Zaller, Associate Professor Dr, Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
52. Professor Dave Goulson, Professor, University of Sussex, UK
53. Dr Marie Charlotte Anstett, Researcher, CNRS, France
54. Dr Doug Gurian-Sherman, Honorary Research Fellow, Coventry University, UK
55. Dr Christophe Boëte, Researcher, ISEM, IRD, France
56. Dr Eva Novotny, University of Cambridge (retired), UK
57. Dr John Fagan, CEO and Chief Scientific Officer, Health Research Institute, USA
58. Dr Mylène Weill, Researcher, CNRS, France
59. Dr Q. F. Claudio Martinez, Assistant Professor, UdelaR, Uruguay
60. Dr Emmanuel González-Ortega, Research Professor, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Xochimilco, Mexico
61. Dr Warren H. J. Kuo, Professor Emeritus, Dept of Agronomy, National Taiwan University, Taiwan
62. Ingeniera Alimentaria Lara Taroco, Inspector, Ministerio de Salud Pública – Red Agroecología, Uruguay
63. Professor Stuart A. Newman, Professor, New York Medical College, USA
64. Professor Thomas Bøhn, Research Professor, Institute of Marine Research, Norway
65. Dr Hervé Le Meur, Research Fellow, CNRS, France
66. Dr (Biological Sciences) Catherine Wattiez, GMOs Expert, Nature et Progrès Belgium, Belgium
67. Mr Diederick Sprangers, Scientific Coordinator, European Network for Social and Environmental Responsibility (ENSSER), Netherlands
68. Dr Arnaud Apoteker, General Delegate, Justice Pesticides, France
69. Dr W. Malcolm Byrnes, Associate Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Howard University, USA
70. Dr Bela Irina Passos Natario de Castro, Researcher and Project Manager, Centro de Estudos Sociais, Portugal
71. Professor Giuseppe Longo, DRE Emeritus Professor, CNRS and Ecole normale supérieure, Paris, France
72. Dr Mathias Otto, Scientific Advisor, Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Germany
73. Professor Dr Polyxeni Nicolopoulou Stamati, Emeritus Prof. Environmental Pathology, University of Athens Medical School, Greece
74. Professor Emeritus Barbara Demeneix, Emeritus Professor, CNRS/Museum, France
75. Dr Filipa Subtil, Lecturer, ESCS-IPL, Portugal
76. Dr Véronique Thomas-Vaslin, Researcher, CNRS, France
77. Professor Andras Paldi, Professor, PSL Research University, EPHE, Paris, France
78. Dr José Luís Garcia, Senior Researcher, Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
79. Dr Lanka Horstink, Research Fellow, Institute of Social Sciences, University of Lisbon, Portugal
80. Professor Emeritus Ole Faergeman, Emeritus Professor of Preventive Cardiology, MD, DMSc, Department of Cardiology, University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
81. Dr Roberto Bacilieri, Researcher in genetics and genome's structural variation, AGAP Institut, Montpellier, France
82. Dr Liliana Terradas, Research Associate, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República de Uruguay, Uruguay
83. Dr Gabriella Jorge-Escudero, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de la República de Uruguay, Uruguay
84. Dr Jaime García-González, Universidades UNED and UCR (retired), Costa Rica; also Red de Coordinación en Biodiversidad, Costa Rica
85. Dr Frédéric Jacquemart, Researcher in Immunology (retired), France
86. Dr Finn Stirling, Scientific Researcher, University of Cambridge, UK
87. Dr Flora Luna Gonzales, Scientific Advisor, Peruvian Association of Consumers and Users (ASPEC), Peru
88. Professor George Chrousos, Professor Emeritus of Pediatrics and Endocrinology, Medical School of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
89. Dr Jaco Van der Wal, MD, PhD, Emeritus Associate Professor of Anatomy and Embryology, Independent Senior Lecturer in Embryology, Netherlands
90. Professor Emeritus Dieter Hammer, Professor Emeritus, Netherlands
91. Dr Siguna Mueller, Austria
92. Dr Jeff Pettis, President of Apimondia, USA
93. Mr Nicolas Laarman, General Delegate, POLLINIS, France
94. Dr Fani Hatjina, Senior Researcher, Dept of Apiculture-ELGO 'DIMITRA', Greece
95. Dr Eva Gelinsky, Independent Scientist, Switzerland
96. Dr Lucas A. Garibaldi, Director, Research Institute on Natural Resources, Agroecology and Rural Development (IRNAD), University of Río Negro, Argentina
97. Dr Elisabeth Abergel, Associate Professor, Institut des sciences de l'environnement, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
98. Dr Peter Clausing, Toxicologist; Scientific Advisor, Pesticide Action Network, Germany
99. Dr Professor Louise Vandelac, Professor, Director of Research, Environmental Sciences and Sociology, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada
100. Dr Paolo Fontana, Researcher, Edmund Mach Foundation, Italy
101. Dr Daniel Maingi, Programme Director, Growth Partners Africa, Kenya
102. Dr Zsofia Hock, Interim CEO, Schweizer Allianz Gentechfrei, Switzerland
103. Mr Mark W. Butler, Senior Advisor, Nature Canada, Canada
[1] UK Parliament (2022). Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) Bill. https://bills.parliament.uk/bills/3167/publications
[2] ALLEA (2022). ALLEA provides expert advice to the European Commission’s public consultation on plants produced by new genomic techniques. 22 Jun. https://allea.org/category/genome-editing/ ; EPSO (2016). Site-directed nucleases. 21 Mar. https://globalplantcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/16_03_21_EPSO_New-Breeding-Technologies_Crop-Improvement_Fact-sheets.pdf ; EU-SAGE (2021). EU-SAGE information. https://www.eu-sage.eu/sites/default/files/2021-03/EU-SAGE%20information.pdf
[3] For example: Wolt JD et al (2016). Achieving plant CRISPR targeting that limits off-target effects. The Plant Genome 9: doi: 10.3835/plantgenome2016.05.0047. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27902801 ; Zhu C et al (2017). Characteristics of genome editing mutations in cereal crops. Trends in Plant Science 22:38–52. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27645899 ; Norris AL et al (2020). Template plasmid integration in germline genome-edited cattle. Nat Biotech 38(2): 163-164. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-019-0394-6 ; Tuladhar R et al (2019). CRISPR-Cas9-based mutagenesis frequently provokes on-target mRNA misregulation. Nature Communications 10, article number: 4056, 6 Sept. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-12028-5 ; Kosicki M et al (2018). Repair of double-strand breaks induced by CRISPR–Cas9 leads to large deletions and complex rearrangements. Nature Biotechnology 36:765–771. https://www.nature.com/articles/nbt.4192 ; Kawall K (2021). The generic risks and the potential of SDN-1 applications in crop plants. Plants 10(11). https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/11/2259/htm ; Kawall K et al (2020). Broadening the GMO risk assessment in the EU for genome editing technologies in agriculture. Environmental Sciences Europe 32, Article number: 106 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-020-00361-2 ; Ono R et al (2019). Exosome-mediated horizontal gene transfer occurs in double-strand break repair during genome editing. Communications Biology 2: 57 https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-019-0300-2.pdf?origin=ppub ; Eckerstorfer MF et al (2021). Biosafety of genome editing applications in plant breeding: Considerations for a focused case-specific risk assessment in the EU. BioTech 2021, 10(3), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/biotech10030010 ; Smits AH et al (2019). Biological plasticity rescues target activity in CRISPR knock outs. Nat Methods 16, 1087–1093. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31659326 ; Biswas S et al (2020). Investigation of CRISPR/Cas9-induced SD1 rice mutants highlights the importance of molecular characterization in plant molecular breeding. Journal of Genetics and Genomics. May 21. doi:10.1016/j.jgg.2020.04.004. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1673852720300916
[4] Kawall K (2019). New possibilities on the horizon: Genome editing makes the whole genome accessible for changes. Frontiers in Plant Science, 10:525. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00525. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2019.00525/full
[5] Monroe JG et al (2022). Mutation bias reflects natural selection in Arabidopsis thaliana. Nature 602:101–105. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04269-6; UC Davies (2022). Study challenges evolutionary theory that DNA mutations are random. Phys.org, 12 Jan. https://phys.org/news/2022-01-evolutionary-theory-dna-mutations-random.html
[6] Kawall K (2021). The generic risks and the potential of SDN-1 applications in crop plants. Plants 10(11). https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/10/11/2259/htm ; Kawall K et al (2020). Broadening the GMO risk assessment in the EU for genome editing technologies in agriculture. Environmental Sciences Europe 32, Article number: 106 (2020) https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12302-020-00361-2 ; Eckerstorfer MF et al (2019). An EU perspective on biosafety considerations for plants developed by genome editing and other new genetic modification techniques (nGMs). Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2019.00031 ; ENSSER (2019). ENSSER Statement: New genetic modification techniques and their products pose risks that need to be assessed. ENSSER. https://ensser.org/publications/2019-publications/ensser-statement-new-genetic-modification-techniques-and-their-products-pose-risks-that-need-to-be-assessed/
[7] Guo R et al (2016). Generation and evaluation of Myostatin knock-out rabbits and goats using CRISPR/Cas9 system. Scientific Reports 6, Article number: 29855. https://www.nature.com/articles/srep29855/ ; Farming UK (2022). Gene-editing bill 'a serious setback' for animal welfare, RSPCA warns. 26 May. https://www.farminguk.com/news/gene-editing-bill-a-serious-setback-for-animal-welfare-rspca-warns_60462.html ; Rana P, Craymer L (2018). Big tongues and extra vertebrae: The unintended consequences of animal gene editing. Wall St Journal, 14 Dec. https://www.wsj.com/articles/deformities-alarm-scientists-racing-to-rewrite-animal-dna-11544808779?mod=e2tw
[8] Collins Dictionary (2022) has the following relevant definitions of “breeding”:
“1. the process of bearing offspring; reproduction
2. the process of producing plants or animals by sexual reproduction…”