圖說創新思考法 – 如何用垂直思考及水平思考找出獨特的solution?

以下是垂直思考的基本, 水平思考則參見http://caivology.blogspot.com/

Two Types of Assertive Discourse

• Arguments.

• “Expositions” (Beardsley’s term).

Exposition

• In the sense used by Beardsley in Thinking Straight:

– An assertive discourse that simply describes something.

– For example, the description of a landscape.

What Is an Argument?

• Collection of assertions.

• Each one stand in a special relation to each other.

• Some of the assertions are conclusions (usually just one).

• Some of the assertions are reasons for accepting the conclusion.

• If an assertive discourse is not an argument, it is an exposition (description).

Inductive and Deductive Arguments

• Every argument is either a deductive argument or an inductive one.

• No argument is both inductive and deductive.

• In other words: “all arguments fall into one or the other of two jointly exhaustive and mutually exclusive categories.”

What Is an Inductive Argument?

• A non-deductive argument.

• An argument claiming that if the assumptions are true, the conclusion is probably true.

• The assumptions of an inductive argument are called evidence.

What Is an Inductive Argument?

• A non-deductive argument.

• An argument claiming that if the assumptions are true, the conclusion is probably true.

• The assumptions of an inductive argument are called evidence.

Counter Example

• To prove invalidity (bad reasoning in a deductive argument):

– Show a possible case where premises are true and conclusion is false.

Two Independent Ways to Criticize a Deductive Argument

• Are all the premises true?

• Is the argument valid?

https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%B9%E7%AB%8B%E5%9B%9B%E8%BE%B9%E5%BD%A2

亞里士多德在《解釋篇》中對特稱否定命題的陳述為「並非所有的S是P」而不是「有些S不是P」。

Teaching Critical Thinking through Online Discussions (lakeheadu.ca)

Socratic Questioning Prompts

1. "Questions for Clarification"

• "What do you mean by _____?"

• "What is your main point?"

• "How does _____ relate to _____?"

• "Could you put it another way?"

• "What do you think is the main issue here?"

• "Let me see if I understand: do you mean _____ or _____?"

• "Jane, could you summarize in your own words what Richard has said?"

• "Richard, is that what you meant?"

• "Could you give me an example?"

• "Would this be an example: _____?"

• "Could you explain that further?"

2. "Questions about the Initial Question or Issue"

• "How can we find out?"

• "What does this questions assume?"

• Would _____ put the question differently?"

• "Can we break this question down at all?"

• "Does this question lead to other questions or issues?"

3. "Questions that Probe Assumptions"

• "What are you assuming?"

• "What could we assume instead?"

• "You seem to be assuming _____. Do I understand you correctly?"

• "How would you justify taking this for granted?"

• "Is this always the case?"

• "Why do think the assumption holds here?"

4. "Questions that Probe Reason and Evidence"

• "What would be an example?"

• "Could you explain your reasons to us?"

• "Are those reasons adequate?"

• "Do you have any evidence for that?"

• "How could we find out if that is true?"

5. "Questions that Probe Origin or Source Questions"

• "Where did you get this idea?"

• "Have you been influenced by the media?"

• "What caused you to feel this way?"

6. "Questions that Probe Implications and Consequences"

• "What are you implying by that?"

• "What effect would that have?"

• "What is an alternative?"

• "If that is the case, then what else must be true?"

7. "Questions about Viewpoints or Perspectives"

• "How would other groups of people respond? Why?"

• "How could you answer the objection that _____ would make?"

• "Can anyone see this another way?"

• "What would someone who disagrees say?"