ORGANIZERS

NGO ‘PERMACULTURE IN UKRAINE’

NYELENI POLAND

OPEN INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ‘UKRAINE’

UC DAVIS GLOBAL AFFAIRS

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS

PARTNERS

EFKA WOMEN'S FOUNDATION

HUNGARIAN PERMACULTURE ASSOCIATION

NGO ‘GLOBAL ECOVILLAGE NETWORK UKRAINE’

PERMAKULTURA (CS), Z. S.

RESEARCH-EDUCATIONAL CENTRE ZIELONOWO

STRUK (THE SOCIETY FOR THE SUSTAINABLE CULTURE)

"POLYCULTURES AND PERMACULTURE"

Proceedings of the international research and practice conference

31 of January — 1 of February 2020

Warsaw, Poland; Kyiv, Ukraine; Davis, USA

Kyiv 2020

Published in accordance with the decision of the organizing committee on behalf of the International Open International University of Human Development "Ukraine" dated February 27, 2020.

Editors and reviewers: Ardanov P.Ye., Brodt S.B., Fontana N.M., Kazakova I.V., Movchan V.O.

Polyculture and permaculture: proceedings of research and practice conference “Polyculture and permaculture”. - Kyiv 2020. - 81 p.

Conference was focused on exploring polycultures (simultaneous cultivation of several crops in the same space) as a way to diversify agricultural systems to improve their sustainability, resilience, reduce and environmental impact of agriculture and foster provisioning of agroecological services, increase farm profit and efficiency of arable land utilization. Conference has special emphasis on permaculture which designs resilient functionally assembled systems, where agriculture systems are assembled from multiple plant and animal species with special accent to perennial plants and allocation of wild and unmanaged natural sites on the property. Proceedings contain abstract, short reports, and the conference resolutions aimed at researchers, growers, and policy makers.

Electronic copy of the conference proceedings is freely accessible on the web-sites of the International Open International University of Human Development "Ukraine" under section "Publishing activities of materials of scientific and practical conferences, seminars, etc." and on the web-site the Visegrad and Beyond Permaculture Partnership (https://visegrad.permakultura.sk/) under section “Conference on Polycultures”.

Recorded conference presentations and slides are available.

Supported by the International Visegrad Fund

© International Open International University of Human Development "Ukraine", 2020

Table of Contents

I.        BIODIVERSITY IN AGRICULTURE        5

BIODIVERSITY UNDERPINS AGRICULTURE, LET AGRICULTURE FOSTER BIODIVERSITY        5

Barbara Gemmill-Herren

IS IT POSSIBLE TO CREATE A MODEL REFUGE OF AGROBIODIVERSITY?        6

Denise F. Dostatny

CHIROPTERA: ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE        11

Lena V. Godlevska

POLLINATOR COMMUNITIES AND AGROBIODIVERSITY IN CONVENTIONAL, ORGANIC AND PERMACULTURE FARMS ON SZENTENDRE ISLAND, HUNGARY        14

Alfréd Szilágyi, Fanni Mészáros, Róbert Kun, Miklós Sárospataki

USING OF OLD APPLE VARIETIES FROM THE TRANSCARPATHIAN REGION IN POLYCULTURE        18

Vasyl Margitay, Lyubov Margitay

II.        CROPS AND FARMING SYSTEMS        19

AGROECOLOGICAL DESIGN OF PERENNIAL POLYCULTURES FOR GRAIN AND FORAGE        19

Valentin Picasso

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF KERNZA® IN THE RIGHT-BANK FOREST STEPPE OF UKRAINE        20

Iryna Kravets, Dmytro Adamenko, Oksana Sukhomud

AGROECOLOGICAL POTENTIAL BY PLANT DIVERSIFICATION IN THE CEREAL CROP SYSTEM        27

Agnes Piquet-Pissaloux

ARTEMISIA (SAGEBRUSH) PLANT SPECIES: PROSPECTS IN POLYCULTURE        29

Olga Korabliova, Maria Gazniuk, Olena Vergun

AGROFORESTRY AS A PROFITABLE ALTERNATIVE FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE        33

Robert Borek

EXPLORING AGROFORESTRY IN CALIFORNIA: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR DIVERSIFYING INDUSTRIALIZED AGRICULTURE IN MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATES        35

Sonja B. Brodt, Nina M. Fontana, Leigh F. Archer

RESTORATION OF SOIL FERTILITY SELF REGULATION IN ORGANIC FARMING        37

Olexander Demidenco, Mykhailo Kapshtyk

POLYCULTURE IN WETLANDS        41

Valentyna Movchan

COMPARING AND SEEKING COMPLEMENTARITY BETWEEN FOUR FARM DESIGN APPROACHES        44

Melissa Vogt

IMPACT OF BLACK TRUFFLE INOCULATION (TUBER MELANOSPORUM VS 1223) ON THE DIVERSITY OF SOIL AND PLANT MICROFLORA IN THE ECOSYSTEM        45

Victorija Oliferchuk

BLACK TRUFFLE MYCORRHIZA SUSTAINS BIODIVERSITY IN PERMACULTURE SYSTEMS        50

Victorija Oliferchuk

POLYCULTURAL MANAGEMENT OF WARM ROZUM BEDS AT THE SCHOOL GARDEN OF PLEBANIVSKA SCHOOL IN THE PROJECT “THE EYE OF THE UNIVERSE’’        53

Volodymyr Rozum

BENTONITE IN THE WARM ROZUM BED SYSTEM: PROPERTIES, SIGNIFICANCE, APPLICATION RATE        58

Viktor Snisar

III.        PLANT-LIVESTOCK INTEGRATION        63

POTENTIAL OF INTEGRATED CROP LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS FOR SUSTAINABLE INTENSIFICATION        63

Amélie Gaudin, Kelsey Brewer, Caitlin Peterson, Sara Tiffany, Julie Ryschawy, Lucas Patzec, Miguel Garcia, Lindsay Bell, Paolo C de F Carvalho

SOIL CARBON SPONGE FORMATION IN A PRODUCTIVE MIXED PERENNIAL AND ANNUAL POLYCULTURE USING MOBILE PASTURE POULTRY AND EGG PRODUCTION MODEL        64

Łukasz P. Nowacki

IV.        PERMACULTURE        65

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY PERMACULTURE        65

Linda Blättler

V.        CITIZENS SCIENCE AND EDUCATION        66

POLYCULTURES, PEOPLE AND PERMACULTURE: CITIZEN SCIENCE INVESTIGATIONS OF PRODUCTIVITY        66

Naomi K. van der Velden, Alice Ambler, Gerid Hager, Roy Neilson, Victoria J. Burton

POLYCULTURES OF LEARNING: TOWARDS THE DIALOGUE OF DIVERSE KNOWLEDGE IN FARMING        68

Joanna Bojczewska

VI.        POLICIES AND REGULATIONS        69

EVALUATING SUSTAINABILITY OF AGRI-FOOD CERTIFICATIONS        69

Laura Piedra-Muñoz, Lorenzo Bonisoli, Emilio Galdeano-Gómez

DEVELOPING OF EMERALD NETWORK IN UKRAINE        70

Oleksii Vasyliuk, Oleksii Marushchak

ASSESSMENT OF THE APPLICATION OF ECO-INTENSIVE PRACTICES IN EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR UKRAINE        72

Iryna Kazakova

RESOLUTION OF THE CONFERENCE “POLYCULTURES AND PERMACULTURE”        76

Policy recommendations to promote biodiversity-based agriculture

1. BIODIVERSITY IN AGRICULTURE

BIODIVERSITY UNDERPINS AGRICULTURE, LET AGRICULTURE FOSTER BIODIVERSITY

Barbara Gemmill-Herren

PhD; Senior Advisor to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; Associate Faculty, Prescott College, Prescott, USA; Senior Associate, World Agroforestry Centre Nairobi, Kenya (b.gemmillherren@prescott.edu)

Agriculture and food systems are fundamentally biological (and social) systems. All agricultural sectors: fisheries, forestry as well as agriculture — do not need to — in fact should not — destroy nature. These productive sectors in every country, every region of the world, can be designed to build upon and harness the forces of biodiversity. They can serve to arrest the declines in biodiversity while regenerating their natural resource base. This is increasingly being recognized on all levels including the international, intergovernmental level, as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is working together with the Convention on Biological Diversity to “mainstream biodiversity” across all agricultural sectors. There is a great potential to recognize the contribution of biodiversity to agriculture, and in turn to cultivate forms of agriculture that foster biodiversity, including polycultures and permaculture, including the discussion currently underway at the intergovernmental level.

Fig. 1. A homegarden in Chitwan, Nepal.

IS IT POSSIBLE TO CREATE A MODEL REFUGE OF AGROBIODIVERSITY?

Denise F. Dostatny

PhD, senior researcher, National Centre for Plant Genetic Resources — Plant Breeding and Acclimatization Institute, Radzików, Błonie, Poland (d.dostatny@ihar.edu.pl)

Introduction

The pace of extinction of species on Earth is incredibly rapid; it might impossible to discover all of them. Among species, varieties and local populations threatened by extinction are agricultural plants, vegetables, medicinal and aromatic plants, orchards and crop wild relatives. In the past people knew how to use natural resources skillfully. However, over time they learnt to employ new technologies and unwisely ignore the laws of nature. Shifting from hunting and gathering to farming caused a replacement of the mosaic system of habitats by a growing number of single species cultivations. 

Polish agriculture is characterized by considerable fragmentation of farms and relatively low consumption of industrial means of production. Almost half of the area of Poland is arable land, almost 70% of which is cultivated (Central Statistical Office 2013). Poland has one of the largest reserves of environmental diversity of agricultural landscape of all countries in Europe. Over half of all biodiversity in Europe is associated with agricultural habitat, which is why it should be closely researched.

Agricultural diversity in the fields continues to decrease and ultimately will result in increased acreage of monocultures, and decreased diversity of both flora and fauna in rural areas. Cereal crops currently dominate in agrocenoses. There, no crop diversification is present, which causes a decrease in specialized pollinators. Agricultural ecosystems have a poorer composition of species and are therefore unstable — imbalances.

On the other hand, it can be said that a higher biodiversity in agricultural systems increases the number and level of services in this ecosystem. Ecosystem services can be described as the benefits obtained by the human population from an ecosystem (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). The increase in weed diversity can increase the quality of their services, for example reduce the competition with crops. At a certain level of diversity the size of the service will not increase, but the increased variety of weeds may still be relevant to maintaining the provision of services in the changing environmental conditions of agricultural practices. Ecosystem services have received increasing attention in life sciences, but only a limited amount of quantitative data is available about the ability of weeds to provide these services.

By simplifying the complex ecosystems and eliminating the unwanted species, human beings made their diet poorer and changed the habitats of wild flora and fauna completely. In the face of extinction of species and monoculture, the only way to save endangered species is to maintain the still existing biological diversity both in natural and agriculture ecosystems (genetic resources conservation). In order to preserve the agrobiodiversity a variety of methods need to be implemented, one of these is to create models of agrobiodiversity refuges in different areas of a given country.

Material and Methods

The research was carried out in one of Poland’s most abundant and oldest agricultural areas in the south of the country, between 1997–1999, repeated in 2004–2006 and in 2014–2016. A significant part of research was conducted on limestone soil, as this soil type is characteristic of the unique weed species of the community Caucalido-Scandicetum, threatened by extinction in both Poland and Europe. Results were compared with literature of previous research conducted in the 70’s, between 1986–1988. Phytosociological records performed in cereal crop fields were compared. All records were made according to the Braun-Blanquet method of vegetation surveying. 

This research contains results conducted mainly on fields in the South of Poland, in the region called “Niecka Nidziańska” — one of Poland’s most abundant and oldest agricultural areas, between 1997–1999, repeated in 2004–2006 and in 2014–2016. Besides that we can find results from the implementation of “package 6” — a Polish agri-environmental program supervised by the author of this article.

Results and Discussion

At low levels of weed diversity, its further increase has is a high potential for affecting ecosystem processes. At medium levels of diversity, the magnitude of increase of ecosystem processes is reduced with further diversity increase. And in diverse weed communities the increase in diversity increases the resilience of the ecosystem service under changing environmental or farming system conditions, but it will not affect the magnitude of the service provisioning (Blaix & al, 2018).

Insect populations around the world are falling at an alarming rate. Bee diversity seems to be diminishing as a result of intensive agriculture and increased use of pesticides, but also because crops are harvested earlier (bees are threatened with extinction in agricultural areas because they can no longer find enough „food”).

Establishing flower strips or keeping field weeds in balks can help preserve the diversity of bee species. Various groups of living organisms, including birds, have been selected as one of the measures for assessing the quality of life of societies in the European Union.

We might assume that in places where herbicides were not used the number of weed species is considerably higher than on the fields where herbicides were applied. However, individual species occur in few specimens only, which causes that a general level of weed coverage on these fields is low (Fig. 1). This is important, as most probably a great number of weed species does not reduce the crop plant’s yield.

Niecka Nidziańska — a model refuge of agrobiodiversity. The purpose of the project was to preserve and support biodiversity in agricultural ecosystems and to protect endangered species of field weeds. Several training sessions concerning the preservation of rare weed species were held in the area and an event was organized in collaboration with local authorities and thanks to the involvement of farmers. 

Local farmers were trained to pursue actions that had been initiated under the project by participation in the Polish agri-environmental program — “Package 6” concerning the preservation of endangered genetic resources of plants in cultivation. The implementation of the package involves the cultivation and production of seed material of regional and/or amateur varieties registered in the National Register and to conserve (near) extinct and valuable varieties, species and ecotypes of crop plants, diversify crops in rural areas, create seeds of varieties endangered by genetic erosion. Package 6 was shortened in the new edition of this balk (2014–2020), which constitutes a great step backwards. Agri-environmental programs are compulsory for each of the EU Member States, but the scope and financial resources for co-financing are subject to the decision of each of these countries. The experience of EU countries showed that implementation of agri-environmental programs can give good environmental results. It is necessary to adjust packages of the program to the local environmental conditions and create a good evaluation system which can help to control this program. It will help to control mismatch between actions and result in individual packages and better connect the agricultural development with the environmental protection.

Can we create a model refuge in agroecosystems? The answer is yes: by creating home gardens and small-scale farming. The objectives of these refuges is to conserve (near) extinct and valuable varieties, species and ecotypes of crop plants, crop diversify in rural areas, create seedbank of varieties endangered by genetic erosion. Wild plants also should be a part of our home gardens. They constitute an inexhaustible stock of valuable but underexplored and nowadays underappreciated plants. It is necessary to preserve local taxons, since they are perfectly adapted to local conditions. If we do not put more efforts in the protection (particularly in situ) of the most valuable species they may soon become extinct. Wild plants have significant value for food security, yet they are often underutilized and endangered. We need to increase national awareness towards plant conservation. Wild plants need to be fully recognized as key parts of our ‘Plant Heritage’.

Home gardens (Fig. 2) supply nutritious food and some staple foods all year round including vegetables, aromatic and medicinal plants, fruits, ornamental plants, and special food reserve resources such as root crops, trees and livestock. It can also generate marketable produce, and processing can increase its added value contributing to a family's income (FAO, 2020).

Small-scale farming typically combines production of different crops, vegetables and livestock (Fig. 3). Such farmlands traditionally supported high levels of biodiversity. Cultivation of traditional crop varieties and managing edges between fields as a wildlife refuge are important measures to increase farmland biodiversity.

Conclusions

Our understanding of weed importance has been changing over time, and nowadays researchers reevaluate their significance in agroecosystems. 

Biodiversity certainly does not need people, but people need biodiversity. We have no other choice but to understand the environment well, so we can make the right decisions. Education is crucial, as it is a process in which society consciously transfers its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from generation to generation.

We need to strengthen the cooperation between farmers, the gene banks and governmental organizations in order to increase the agrobiodiversity in our country. 

Traditional varieties are our cultural and historical legacy. These varieties have such characteristics as robustness, fertility and resistance to diseases and pests, and environmental stresses (droughts and frost). We have a moral obligation to preserve them for future generations. 

Seeds are our common legacy. Preservation of traditional varieties is key for maintaining our food independence, our health and preserving the natural environment. Equally important is the availability of such seed stocks for anyone interested. It is also the basis of traditional and ecological agriculture.

References

Blaix, C., Moonen, A.C., Dostatny, D.F., Izquierdo, J., Le Corff, J., Morrison, J., Von Redwitz Schumacher, M., Westerman, P.R. (2018). Quantification of regulating ecosystem services provided by weeds in annual cropping systems. Weed research, 58, 151–164

FAO (2020, February 21). Improving Nutrition through Home Gardening. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/nutrition/household_gardens_en.stm

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2003). Ecosystems and human well-being; a framework for assessment. Washington, D.C., USA: Island Press

CHIROPTERA: ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE

Lena V. Godlevska

PhD, Senior Research Assistant at I.I. Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (LGodlevska@gmail.com)

Keywords: bats, pest control, agriculture, protection

Introduction. Chiroptera, or bats, are a diverse group of animals that accounts for over 1300 species in the world fauna, with over 50 species living in Europe, 28 of which can be seen in Ukraine. Bats are one of the most vulnerable mammal groups. Low reproductive rate, unreasonable negative attitude on the part of people and a number of other factors (decline in the amount of natural habitats and in the number of available shelters, large-scale use of pesticides) has led to drastic drop in their population within the 20th century.

As of today, all species belonging to the European fauna are protected by international legislation and national laws. In Ukraine, all bat species are protected by law in accordance with the Law on the Red Book of Ukraine as well as with three international agreements (Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats, Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats and Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Godlevska, & Fesenko, 2010).

Bats: Significance. Bats have long been lacking attention from agriculture economists and business managers. However, research of bats has intensified only in the second half of XX century, and it has become understood that bats are an important constituent part of many ecosystems, and their input into economic stability of, specifically, agricultural crops and forestry cannot be overrated (Jones et al., 2009).

All bat species in Ukraine feed exclusively on arthropods (mainly on insects). Their prey items comprise over 500 insect species (Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera etc.), as well as a number of spiders (Phalangiidae and Myriapoda). It has been demonstrated that the considerable part of the ration of Chiroptera organisms is comprised by various species of Lepidoptera which are the main crop pests in many regions (Riccucci & Lanza, 2014).

A considerable diversity of Chiroptera species correlates with different prey strategies (in open space, in semi-closed environment, in the air, from substrates, etc.) covered by various arthropod groups (Dietz et al., 2009).

In the warm period of the year, one bat eats an amount of insects equal to 1/3–1/2 and sometimes even up to 100% of its weight daily. Respectively, during the warm season, a colony consisting of 20 small bats consumes from 40 to 180 thousand plant feeding insects (with the overall weight of the insects amounting to 3—14 kg).

It has been found that over 290 insect species consumed by the European bat species are those able to damage forests and agricultural crops. In particular, over a half of these (more than 150 species) are dangerous for forests, capable of mass reproduction, and in forestry are viewed as pests. One third of the list (55 species) are the ones most dangerous for forest plantations. Prey of bat species include Panolis flammea, Agrotis segetum, Coccus coccus, Dendrolimus pini, Lymantria dispar, Lymantria monacha, Malacosoma neustria, Thaumetopoea processionea, Bombyx mori, Porthesia similis, Operophthera brumata, Erannis defoliaria, Sphinx pinastri, Tortrix viridana, Melolontha melolontha, Melolontha hippocastani, Polyphylla adspersa, Amphimallon solstitialis, Scolytus intricatus, Hylesinus fraxini, Pityogenes chalkographus, Saperda calcarata, Xylotrechus rusticus, Diprion pini, Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa etc. (Tyshchenko, 2011). Chances are that the above list is underrated, and the species number will grow with further research based on molecular methods.

Importance of Chiroptera for agriculture and forestry is not confined to direct removal of insects (predation). A suppressive role of Chiroptera in insect population control has been demonstrated. “Tympanal” insect species react to the presence of bats with hiding behavior (ter Hofstede, Ratcliffe, 2011), which results in lower reproductive activity and, respectively, lower population (reviewed in: Russo et al, 2018).

Thus, Chiroptera are important regulators of insect numbers, including numerous agricultural and forestry pests. Economic significance of Chiroptera also includes cost reduction for production and application of pesticides (considering the environmental consequences of their use). According to extrapolative estimates (Boyles et al, 2011), the importance of Chiroptera for the U.S. agriculture and forestry in monetary terms amounts to US$22.9 bln. annually (taking into account lower pesticide application). The latest studies show that the amount of applied pesticides and respective farming approach (traditional, with minimized pesticide use, versus conventional one that widely utilizes chemical insecticides) directly correlates with diversity and numbers of bats. Basically, the highest bat numbers are observed in places with no or minimum pesticide use (Herrera et al, 2015).

Besides, some studies show indirect influence on productivity of agricultural crops: plant tissue damage by pest maggots increases infection risk by pathogens. Therefore, by reducing pest population and incidence of pest lesion crops are better protected from pathogens (see review in Russo et al., 2018).

Recent research points out the role of bats as regulators of Diptera population that harm free-range cattle, affecting its productivity (Ancillotto et al, 2017).

Bats: Protection and preservation. One of the key factors responsible for preservation of Chiroptera is availability of suitable shelters. Bats are not able to build shelters for themselves, they use hiding places found in nature (caves, fractures in rocks, cavities in trees) or anthropogenic objects (various parts of buildings, bridges, cellars etc.). Within a year, the same species can use various types of shelters (e.g. holes in trees or roof spaces in summer, caves in winter). This is due to different requirements toward microclimatic, structural and spatial parameters of shelters at different seasons or stages of reproductive cycle of the animals. Besides, a number of species (in particular, dendrophiles) change shelters many times within one season, and one old tree with holes in it is not enough for them (however, every such tree is important): a group of mature trees with a certain number of holes is required.

A separate category of shelters is cavities in buildings, including dwelling houses, where bats are in the zone of direct influence of people, thus facing additional risks. Living side by side with bats is safe for people. There are a number of examples of successful joint decades-long use of buildings by bats and people in Europe and worldwide. In Ukraine, however, to our regret, we regularly see situations where human actions lead to unfavorable or even tragic consequences for bats that settle in buildings.

Preservation of shelters along with changes in peoples’ attitudes toward bats is one of the most topical issues of Chiroptera conservation in Ukraine. This being said, it should be noted that making artificial shelters (in particular, bat-boxes or bat-houses) is important, but does not always bring expected results; It is preferable to maximally preserve shelters already used by bats. At the same time it is important to ensure conservation of the environment in general, including landscape and habitat diversity.

References

Tyshchenko V. M. (2011). To assessment of the importance of forest bat tribes as the objects for biological preservation of the forest. Scientific Journal of the National University of Life and Environmental Sciences of Ukraine. Series “Forestry and Landscape Gardening”, 164(3), 131–139 [In Ukrainian]

Godlevska, L., & Fesenko, H. (Eds.). (2010). Fauna of Ukraine: conservation categories. Reference book (2nd ed.). Kyiv, Ukraine: National Ecological Centre of Ukraine [In Ukrainian]

Boyles, J. G., Cryan, P. M., McCracken, G. F., & Kunz, T. H. (2011). Economic importance of bats in agriculture. Science, 332(6025), 41–42

Dietz, C., von Helversen, O., & Nill, D. (2009). Bats of Britain, Europe and Northwest Africa. London, United Kingdom: A & C Black.

Herrera, J. M., Costa, P., Medinas, D., Marques, J. T., & Mira, A. (2015). Community composition and activity of insectivorous bats in Mediterranean olive farms. Animal Conservation, 18(6), 557–566.

ter Hofstede, H. M., & Ratcliffe, J. M. (2016). Evolutionary escalation: the bat–moth arms race. Journal of Experimental Biology, 219(11), 1589–1602.

Jones, G., Jacobs, D. S., Kunz, T. H., Willig, M. R., & Racey, P. A. (2009). Carpe noctem: the importance of bats as bioindicators. Endangered species research, 8(1–2), 93–115.

Riccucci, M., & Lanza, B. (2014). Bats and insect pest control: a review. Vespertilio, 17, 161–169.

POLLINATOR COMMUNITIES AND AGROBIODIVERSITY IN CONVENTIONAL, ORGANIC AND PERMACULTURE FARMS ON SZENTENDRE ISLAND, HUNGARY

1Alfréd Szilágyi*, 2Fanni Mészáros, 3Róbert Kun, 4Miklós Sárospataki

1PhD student, Environmental Sciences PhD School, Szent István University, Gödöllő, Hungary (szilagyialfred@gmail.com)

2graduate student, Faculty of Environmental and Agricultural Sciences, Szent István University, Hungary

3 PhD student, Environmental Sciences PhD School, Szent István University, Gödöllő, Hungary

4 associate professor, Faculty of Environmental and Agricultural Sciences, Szent István University, Gödöllő, Hungary

Keywords: pollinator communities, farming systems, organic farming, permaculture, biodiversity

Introduction

Industrial agricultural intensification poses a serious threat for biodiversity; pollinators are among the most affected groups (Potts et al, 2010).

In conventional farming, the decrease of yields leads to the increase of inputs to compensate for the loss, while organic and permaculture farming systems build on conserving biodiversity (Kremen et al, 2012; Szilágyi et al, 2018). Permaculture is the conscious design of agricultural landscapes which mimics natural patterns and uses natural cycles to provide for human needs in a sustainable way (Mollison, 1988). As a farming system, it builds on a high rate of diversity at all levels: on the biodiversity level, on the farm structure level, and on the land use level. Permaculture is not only a set of practices or a cropping technique, it is a holistic approach on how practitioners perceive farming and their role in the ecosystem (Hathaway 2015, Holmgren 2002). Organic farming also builds on using natural processes, instead of substituting them with external inputs, while conventional farming aims to exclude or at least minimize the natural factors which affect their farming conditions by using external inputs and infrastructure (Gomiero et al, 2011; Sandhu, 2008).

In our study we aimed to compare different sites regarding pollinator communities’ abundance and agrobiodiversity of the three farms. The main consideration was that scientific knowledge on permaculture systems in regard to biodiversity indicators is missing. Our preliminary hypothesis was that the permaculture site would have the highest abundance and diversity of pollinators, while the conventional site will have the least.

Materials and Methods 

Study sites: We selected three different farms on the Szentendre Island, Hungary with similar size (1.5–2 hectares) and agroecological features. All of them have horticultural production with diverse crop rotation, the only difference is the farming systems, one intensive (conventional), and two extensive types (organic and permaculture).

Fig 1. Location of the three studied sites (green point: permaculture, yellow: conventional, red: organic farm) (Googlemaps 2019).

Sampling method: Pollinators were assessed by visual sampling method similar to Bihaly et al. (2018). We carried out field surveys four times in 2019 on the 19th of May, 4th of July, 22nd of July and 5th of September. Sampling duration was 1 hour at each site (2 persons for 30 mins, sharing the site into two halves (0.5–1 hectare)), always visiting the sites in different order between the observation days. Sampling was done throughout the whole site on a predefined line to assess possible occurrence of pollinators on weed flora, but mostly concentrated on the flowering cultures, we never sampled the same place twice to avoid double counting. We also recorded cultivated crops and main weed species and the flowering plants. During our field work, we recorded the most important factor affecting the results, namely which crops or plants were most attractive to pollinators. We registered the individual pollinators in 14 different taxonomic categories. Data were analyzed in Excel 2016.

Results

Pollinator abundance: As demonstrated in Fig. 2, the highest frequency of all pollinators was recorded at the permaculture farm (but with the highest standard deviation), the lowest at the conventional farm.

Fig 2. Frequency of all pollinators in the three study sites (PC= Permaculture, ORG= Organic, CONV= Conventional).

Discussion

Flowering plants to attract pollinators were present at each study farm, including the conventional farm, although pollinator diversity was the highest at the permaculture farm. White butterfly (Pieris rapae) abundance was quite high at the CONV farm, which could be explained by the high percentage of crops belonging to the Brassicaceae family in the cropping area of the conventional site. Flowering weeds seems to have a big impact as a feeding source for pollinators. Flowering weeds were the most visited at the organic farming site, but also highly attractive plants at two other sites. We often observed that pollinators preferred the diverse weed flora patches over the cultivated crops, which is in line with other findings of the role of semi-natural habitats and bee forage on/near arable fields (Bihaly et al, 2018; Kovács-Hostyánszki, 2013).

At the conventional farm, three ornamental plants were cultivated (sunflower, carnation, and limonium), which were abundantly visited by pollinators. At the permaculture farm, herbal plants and cover crop mixtures (rich in flowering crops, such as Phacelia tanacetifolia and Eschscholzia californica) were the most attractive for pollinators. These are some good examples of ecological intensification for farmers when introducing crops most attractive to pollinators to crop rotation schemes (Blanco-Canqui, 2015; Kovács-Hostyánszki et al, 2017).

From this case study, we can conclude that permaculture farms had the highest pollinator abundance and functional diversity. It highlights the importance of studying farmers' attitudes towards supporting biodiversity and the effect of different farming systems, which was revealed in the previous studies (Bommarco, Kleijn, & Potts, 2013; Szilágyi, Podmaniczky, & Mészáros, 2018).

To make study results more relevant for farmers and other stakeholders recorded, biodiversity indicators should be translated to the level of ecosystem services and farm sustainability. Our future research goal is to take this research to this broader level.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank the three farmers for the opportunity to conduct this research on their farms.

References

Bihaly Á., Vaskor D., Lajos K., Sárospataki M. (2018): Effect of semi-natural habitat patches on the pollinator assemblages of sunflower in an intensive agricultural landscape. Hungarian Journal of Landscape Ecology, 16(1), 45–52

Blanco-Canqui, H., Shaver, T. M., Lindquist, J. L., Shapiro, C. A., Elmore, R. W., Francis, C. A., & Hergert, G. W. (2015). Cover crops and ecosystem services: Insights from studies in temperate soils. Agronomy Journal, 107(6), 2449–2474

Bommarco, R., Kleijn, D., & Potts, S. G. (2013). Ecological intensification: harnessing ecosystem services for food security. Trends in ecology & evolution, 28(4), 230–238

Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D., Paoletti, G. M. (2011) Environmental Impact of Different Agricultural Management Practices: Conventional vs. Organic Agriculture. Plant Sciences, 30(1), 95–124

Hathaway, M. (2015) Agroecology and permaculture: addressing key ecological problems by rethinking and redesigning agricultural systems. Journal Environmental Studies Science, 6(2): 239–250

Holmgren, D. (2002) Permaculture: Principles & Pathways Beyond Sustainability. Hampshire, UK:Permanent Publications

Kovács-Hostyánszki, A., Elek, Z., Balázs, K., Centeri, C, Falusi, E., Jeanneret, P., Penksza, K., Podmaniczky, L., Szalkovszki, L., & Báldi, A. (2013): Earthworms, spiders and bees as indicators of habitat quality and management in a low-input farming region — A whole farm approach. Ecological Indicators, 33, 111–120.

Kovács-Hostyánszki, A., Espíndola, A., Vanbergen, A.J., Settele, J., Kremen, C., & Dicks, L.V. (2017): Ecological intensification to mitigate impacts of conventional intensive land use on pollinators and pollination. Ecology Letters, 20, 673–689.

Kremen, C., & Miles, A. (2012). Ecosystem services in biologically diversified versus conventional farming systems: benefits, externalities, and trade-offs. Ecology and Society, 17(4): 40.

Mollison, B. 1988: Permaculture: A Designer’s Manual. Australia: Sisters Creek: Tagari Publications.

Potts, S. G., Biesmeijer, J. C., Kremen, C., Neumann, P., Schweiger, O., & Kunin W. E. (2010): Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25(6), 345–353.

Sandhu, H.S., Wratten, S.D., Cullen, R., & Case, B. (2008). The future of farming: The value of ecosystem services in conventional and organic arable land, an experimental approach. Ecological Economics, 64, 835–848.

Szilágyi A., Podmaniczky L., Mészáros D. (2018): Environmental sustainability performance of conventional, organic and permaculture farms. Hungarian Journal of Landscape Ecology, 16(2): 97–112.

USING OF OLD APPLE VARIETIES FROM THE TRANSCARPATHIAN REGION IN POLYCULTURE

1Vasyl Margitay*, 2Lyubov Margitay*

1PhD student of Uzhhorod National University, Uzhhorod, Ukraine (v.margitay@gmail.com)

2PhD, associate professor, assistant professor of Uzhhorod National University, Uzhhorod, Ukraine (lyubov.margitay@uzhnu.edu.ua)

Introduction

The Transcarpathian region of Ukraine have perfect conditions for permaculture forest gardening. Permaculture forestry is the best example of a man-made multispecies assemblage that has both high productivity and sustainability. Permaculture forestry should include not only different types of fruit, berry, spicy, aromatic, medicinal, vegetable and forest cultures, but also different varieties for cultural species. We recommend using local varieties that have been selected over centuries for their resistance to local diseases, adaptation to local soil and climate. Nowadays aboriginal varieties quickly disappear being replaced by new, popular varieties. Therefore, it is necessary to preserve the gene pool of these varieties. The objective of the study was to collect aboriginal endangered apple varieties within the Transcarpathian region, to study their growth characteristics and compatibility on different rootstocks.

Materials and methods. 

The best aboriginal varieties were selected based on their high productivity in the absence of pesticide application (Polovanya, Krasa Zakarpattya, Solivarske, Batul, Durnayka, Shtetin red, Ferkovanya), and their varietal characteristics were described. During the years 2015–2019, summer grafting (by budding) and spring grafting were carried out on M9 and MM-106 apple rootstocks in a tree nursery in the village Storoznitsa, Uzhgorod district, Transcarpathian region. Growing site had sandy sod-podzolic soil formed on alluvial deposits of the river Uzh. Humus content was 2.1%. Growth rate of tested varieties on different rootstocks was analyzed.

Results and discussion. 

A collection of endangered local apple varieties of the Transcarpathian region was established. All varieties are high-yielding, with good fruit quality, they are resistant to major local diseases, including scab, and partially to powdery mildew and cancer. The important characteristics of selected varieties were investigated. The description of the morphological features for varieties Polovanya, Krasa Zakarpattya, Solivarske, Batul, Durnayka, Shtetin red, Ferkovanya was performed.

Most of studied varieties (Durnayka, Solivarske, Polovanya, Ferkovanya) have good growth rate; Krasa Zakarpattya and the Stetin red have medium rate and Batul has low rate.

We can recommend these varieties for the use in forest gardening on respective rootstocks. All varieties have good compatibility with M9 and MM-106 rootstocks, which are most popular in Ukraine. Seedlings of all studied varieties on clonal rootstocks give a greater growth power comparing to seedlings on wild apple rootstock.

2. CROPS AND FARMING SYSTEMS

AGROECOLOGICAL DESIGN OF PERENNIAL POLYCULTURES FOR GRAIN AND FORAGE

Valentin Picasso

PhD; Assistant Professor in the Agronomy Department at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison. USA; Adjunct Professor at the University of the Republic, Montevideo, Uruguay (picassorisso@wisc.edu)

Ecological theory and empirical studies support the hypothesis that biodiversity improves ecosystem functioning in agroecosystems. Identifying species, combinations of species, and management practices that optimize multiple functions is the basis for successful agroecological design. Perennial crops in polycultures can fundamentally transform agriculture systems, and reconcile food production with environmental sustainability. Compared to current annual crops, perennials have extensive root systems which reduce soil erosion, nutrient runoff, water pollution, and pesticide requirements while increase farmer income due to decreased inputs and costs. Intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium) is the first perennial grain crop in the world, currently marketed as “Kernza”. Developing this perennial crop into a dual-use, grain and forage system, will increase profitability, reduce adoption risks for farmers, and facilitate a landscape-scale transition to perennial agriculture. Intercropping intermediate wheatgrass with forage legumes in polycultures, may provide additional ecological and economic benefits, but also some trade-offs. Results from large field experiments in the US Midwest provide insights into the feasibility of current perennial polyculture systems, and the potential for future agricultural systems.

Fig. 1. A picture from our research plots in Wisconsin.

Iryna Kravets*, Dmytro Adamenko, Oksana Sukhomud

Candidates of Agricultural Sciences, Uman National University of Horticulture, Ukraine (iskravets@ukr.net)

Keywords: perennial crops, Kernza®, Ukraine

“Century after century, cultivated plant forms created by people accumulated only those features and properties that were required by people, not by the plants, and vice versa, wild plant species throughout the centuries accumulated features and properties that allowed them to survive in any environmental condition” (Tsitsyn, 1978).

An experiment aimed at studying growth and development of Kernza® was started in the setting of Right-bank Forest Steppe of Ukraine on the territory of an experimental field of Uman National University of Horticulture (Uman, Cherkasy oblast).

Fig. 1. Soil fertility map of Ukraine.

According to the soil fertility map of Ukraine (Fig. 1) (Ditchuk, Zastavetska, & Brishchenk, 2008), the experiment was set on highly fertile soils. The soil in the experimental field is the typical rich black soil, which is one of the most fertile lands suitable for growing any agricultural crop. The soil has morphological structure as follows:

• Н/k 0–55cm — humus, dark-grey color, surface layer is mellow with pulverescent-lumpy texture; it gradually merges into the subsurface layer that has lumpy texture, and is slightly compacted and has mole and worm passages;
• Нрk 55–90 cm — humus, transitional, evenly humified, dark-grey with brownish tone, its structure is unstable, lumpy, slightly compacted and has worm and mole passages all over; transition is gradual;
• РНk 90–135 cm — subhorizon is slightly humified, grey with brownish tone, soft lumpy structure, stirred by various burrowing animals, slightly compacted, carbonates can be seen in the form of mold and mycelium; transition is gradual;
• Рhk 135–180 cm — the ground is humified with mole passages, greyish-brownish-straw color, stained, soft lumpy structure, with lots of passages made by burrowing animals, mixed with the soil from upper humus horizons, soft; transition is gradual;
• Рk >180 cm — bedrock: brownish- or straw-yellow carbonate loess, carbonates in the form of creaks and carbonate veins.

Characteristics of the 0–20 cm soil layer are as follows: humus content — 3.96–4.25%; gross nitrogen content 0.21–0.28%; content of active phosphorus and potassium forms (according to Chirikov) — 9.15–10.86 and 11.6–12.2 mg per 100 g of soil; salt extract рН — 6.0–6.2; hydrolytic acidity — 1.97 mg equiv. per 100 g of soil; total absorbed bases — 29.9 mg-eq per 100 g of soil; base saturation 93.8% (Gordienko et al, 2000).

Weather conditions within the growing period were typical for this soil and climatic area (Fig. 2–4) [4].

Fig. 2. Ambient air temperature, 0С.

Fig. 3. Precipitation, mm.

Fig. 4. Relative air humidity, %.

Kernza® was sown manually on October 19, 2017. This is critically late for sowing autumn-sown crops in our area. Land cultivation included tillage and seedbed cultivation. Mineral fertilizers, pesticides and growth promoters were not applied.

The period from sowing to sprouting was quite long and amounted to 21 days. The seedlings were broken and weak. The plants entered the winter weakened, in the tillering stage with 2–4 leafs. The root system was located in 0–5 cm soil layer.

Photo 1. Comparison of Kernza® (left) and underwinter sowing of autumn sown wheat (right) as of November 12, 2017.

Wintering conditions in the winter of 2017–2018 were unfavorable for autumn sown crops due to abnormally low air temperature and snow cover that stayed on the ground for a long time in February — March. Spring vegetation start was late for our zone, it started only in the first decade of April.

Kernza® plants were weakened at the beginning of the spring vegetation, but the overwintering percentage was quite high — 95%.

The intense tillering was typical for Kernza® at the beginning of the vegetation restoration, however with a slow increase in the vegetative mass. The growth of the root system occurred much faster than that of the aboveground one.

Starting from the second decade of April 2018, there was a rapid increase in the average daily temperature. Winter crops, in particular winter wheat, quickly developed from the spring tillering stage to the leaf-tube formation and the ear formation stage.

However, the same development stages of Kernza® were prolonged and at the end of May (May 25, 2018), the plants were in the leaf-tube formation.

The ear formation of Kernza® was observed in early July. At that time the winter wheat was in the milk-ripe stage.

The weather conditions in 2018 were favorable for the development of Septoria spot and root rot of winter wheat. The lesion of wheat plants reached 75%. The Kernza® plant, as it can be seen from the Photos 5 and 6, was resistant.

July 2018 was very hot. Sometimes the temperature at daytime was as high as + 370С, both the soil and the air were extremely dry. The picture shows that Kernza® plants were able to resist unfavorable conditions, which is indicative of their plasticity.

In 2018 Kernza® reached its blooming phase in the first decade of August.

Kernza® plants were developed intensely in hot conditions. Grain formation continued in September as well, while the crop was harvested in the second decade of October. The crop yield was about 0.63 t/ha, the above-ground dry matter yield was 0.47 t/ha and 1000 grains weighed 10.2 g.

Field and laboratory research was performed using common methodology (Grytsaienko, Grytsaienko, & Karpenko, 2003; Yeshchenko et al, 2014). Analysis of physiological and biochemical parameters of perennial cereals showed certain specific features depending on their development stage (Table 1). Chlorophyll content (a+b) in the crops under research varied within 1.33–2.71 mg/g of raw matter. For spelt and Kernza® chlorophyll content amounted to 2.19–2.71 mg/g of raw matter, for the Triticum-agropyron hybrid Hors this parameter was 1.33–1.71 mg/g of raw matter. At the grain forming stage, chlorophyll content was higher and averaged at 1.71 mg/g of raw matter.

Dry matter content in Kernza® wheat amounted to 29.9–32.3 %. Spelt cv. Zoria Ukraiiny and the Triticum-agropyron hybrid Hors showed 24.6–29.5 % and 22.6–26.4 %, respectively.

The highest catalase activity was found in the triticum-agropyron hybrid –– 55.4–80.0 micromol/g of raw matter.

Peroxidase activity in the crops under research varied within 14.9–24.0 micromol/g of raw matter. The highest activity of this ferment observed in the Triticum-agropyron hybrid Hors as to 16.3–24.0 micromol/g of raw matter.

Table 1. Physiological and biological parameters.

Note: * –– control.

Yield formula elements of the crops under research relative to their biological features is shown in Table 2.

In studied crops, a significant difference in the elements of the crop structure was observed, which is confirmed by the results of the dispersion analysis. In all respects, except the spike length, spelt wheat, exceeded the perennial Kernza® wheat. However, despite the much longer spike in Kernza® (it exceeded the spelt spike by 8.6 cm), the number of spikelets and grains in the spike was smaller –– 16 and 30.9 pcs. respectively (at 24 and 41.2 pieces for spelt). The same applies to the mass of grains from one spike and the mass of 1000 grains –– 0.97 and 10.2 g, respectively, for the spelt indices of 2.13 and 38.6 g.

Indices of the yield formula elements of the Hors Triticum-agropyron hybrid took an intermediate place between the spelt wheat Zoria Ukraine and perennial wheat Kernza®. The number of grains from the spike of this hybrid was 29.3, which is not much less than from the spelt wheat and Kernza®. However, the weight of grain from one spike and the weight of 1000 grains were much smaller, 0.35 and 6.2 g, respectively.

Table 2. Yield formula elements.

Note: *–– control.

As for the yield formula elements, Triticum-agropyron hybrid Hors took the middle position between spelt wheat Zoria Ukraiiny and perennial Kernza® wheat. The number of grains per head of this hybrid was 29.3 pieces, which is not much lower than in spelt wheat and in Kernza®. However, it had much lower weight of grains per one head and weight of 1000 grains: these parameters were, respectively, 0.35 and 6.2 g.

Conclusions:

In the conditions of the Right-Bank Forest-Steppe of Ukraine, observations on the growth and development of Kernza® showed the following:

1). Kernza® showed high plasticity to adverse environmental conditions.

2). Kernza® plants are resistant to diseases widespread in the growing area, that affect the winter wheat and intermediate wheatgrass.

3). The growth and development stages of Kernza® during the first year of cultivation significantly prevailed in time in comparison with the similar winter wheat stages.

References

Ditchuk, I.L., Zastavetska, O.V., & Brishchenko I.V. (Eds.). (2008). Physical Geography of Ukraine (8 grade schoolbook). Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine: Premier [In Ukrainian]

Gordienko, V.P., Nedvyga, M.V., Osadchyi O.S., & Osinniy M.G. (2000). Basics of soil science and farming. Kyiv, Ukraine [In Ukrainian]

Grytsaienko, Z.M., Grytsaienko, A.O., & Karpenko, V.P. (2003). Methods of biological and agrochemical research of crops and soils. Кyiv, Ukaine: ZAT Nichlava JSC [in Ukrainian]

Tsistyn, N.V. (1978) Perennial wheat. Moscow, USSR: Nauka [In Russian]

Ukrainian hydrometeorological center. (2020, February 21) https://meteo.gov.ua/ua/33345 /hmc/hmc_main/

Yeshchenko, V.O., Kopytko, P.G., Kostogryz P.V.; Opryshko, V.P. (2014) Basics of scientific research in agronomical science: Textbook. Vinnytsia, Ukraine: PE “TD “Edelveis i K”” [In Ukrainian]

AGROECOLOGICAL POTENTIAL BY PLANT DIVERSIFICATION IN THE CEREAL CROP SYSTEM

Agnes Piquet-Pissaloux

Professor of VetAgro Sup, Agronomic campus, Marcy-l'Etoile, France (agnes.piquet@vetagro-sup.fr)

Keywords: legumes, agroecological services, cereals

Context and objectives

Annual crop systems have specialized particularly in recent decades with shortening of the rotation cycle and with only two to three plant species per rotation. These systems are, in response to the structured organization of local agri-food sectors, very well supervised technically and economically. However, the agronomic aspects of these systems are being questioned in the context of non-renewable resource reduction, environmental pollution and climate change. The diversification of crops, or multi-species system (Malézieux et al, 2009), is a lever, which, by integrating plant species related to the classical system, allows to establish new processes (fixation of nitrogen from the air, biocide effect etc.) within the system, and to provide agronomic and environmental services. Legumes have been proposed as part of our research program in both associated and pure-grown crops in a grain system. The research question aims to characterize the agroecological and production potential of these species under specific pedoclimatical conditions in the territory of the Limagnes-Val d'Allier (France-Auvergne), where they grow very few legumes.

Methods

An agronomic approach (Vrignon-Brenas et al, 2016, 2018) and an ecophysiological study (published in progress) have been developed to define the technical indicators (legume biomass, seedling density) necessary to obtain agroecological services by legumes as companion plants. In addition, this study identifies the ecophysiological behaviors of companion plants within the development cycle of an annual crop (wheat) able of optimizing the service expected. Currently, the second phase of the study, is focused on the evaluation of the agroecological potential of legumes in pure culture or in combination in the cereal system in order to validate the agroecological potential at the system level.

Results 

The combination of legumes and annual crop (wheat) does not compromise wheat yield. It helps to limit weeds during the wheat growing cycle, but for this the biomass of legumes must be sufficient, defined by the date and rate of sowing, and the species which needs to be selected according to the local pedoclimatical conditions. Nitrogen content in the system and its availability also depends on these criteria. Integration of legumes increases diversity and abundance of wild pollinators nitrification processes in the soil.

Conclusions

The integration of legume companion plants within the grain system helps to limit herbicide use. It sustains wheat yield by increasing system resilience to drought observed in recent years increasing water use efficiency. Increase in biodiversity will be the focus of future studies across different cropping systems.

References

Malézieux, E., Crozat, Y., Dupraz, C., Laurans, M., Makowski, D., Ozier-Lafontaine, H., et al. (2009). Mixing plant species in cropping systems: Concepts, tools and models. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 29(1), 43–62

Vrignon-Brenas, S., Celette, F., Piquet-Pissaloux, A., Corre-Hellou, G., & David, C. (2018). Intercropping strategies of white clover with organic wheat to improve the trade-off between wheat yield, protein content and the provision of ecological services by white clover. Field Crops Research, 224, 160–169

Vrignon-Brenas, S., Celette, F., Piquet-Pissaloux, A., & David, C. (2016). Biotic and abiotic factors impacting establishment and growth of relay intercropped forage legumes. European Journal of Agronomy, 81, 169–177

ARTEMISIA (SAGEBRUSH) PLANT SPECIES: PROSPECTS IN POLYCULTURE

1Olga Korabliova, 2Maria Gazniuk*, 3Olena Vergun

1PhD, Senior Research Assistant at the M. M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden, Kyiv, Ukraine

2Leading Engineer, M. M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden, Kyiv, Ukraine, (sheltiekiev@ukr.net)

3PhD, Senior Research Assistant

Keywords: Artemisia, phenology, polyculture, essential oils

Introduction

Joint simultaneous cultivation of a several plant species (polyculture) at the same plot preceded monocrop cultivation being the basis of agriculture on the territories of Slavonic states until XVIII century. Nowadays this system is being revived again in both conventional and organic farming; and research of new multifunctional crops is required.

Artemisia (Sagebrush) includes 481 species being one of the most prolific plant genus of flowering plants with multitude of possible human uses Artemisia species are the source of biologically active compounds, contain substances with insecticide and fungicide properties, and can be used for production of essential oils and spices. Some species are used for pigment extraction. Besides, sagebrush species are able to grow in a highly unfavorable environment tolerating drought, poor and salinized soils. Some species are capable of reinforcing slopes, protecting soils from erosion. All these features makes Artemisia species an important study objects for application in polycultures.

Materials and methods

Twelve Artemisia species are undergoing initial testing in the M. M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden. Separate research project is focused on three species which are adventitious plants but have been naturalized a long time ago and are considered weed plants in some areas (Fig. 1).

Artemisia annua is 50–250 cm tall annual used as a folk remedy in modern ethnomedicine of many countries. It has been found to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgetic, sedative, antiviral, antibacterial, and antineoplastic properties. In some countries this species is an official antimalarial and antileishmanial remedy. In 1972 a Chinese pharmacologist Tú Yōuyōu extracted a sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin from A. annua plants, and nowadays this substance is the main component of antimalarial drugs. This species contains essential oil with a pleasant floral and balsamic aroma. The plant has also been found to contain flavonoids: luteolin-7-glucoside, rutin, quercetin and chrysoeriol. In Ukraine the plant is widely used as insecticide.

Artemisia argyi is a perennial plant with silvery decorative-looking leaves, up to 120 cm high, with creeping         rhizome. It is used as an essential-oil-bear formation plant and is a part of medicinal herbal teas, including that for curing lepra. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine and in phytotherapy to cure hepatic disorders, splenopathy and kidney diseases. The plant has antispasmodic, vermicidal, diuretic, diaphoretic, fungicidal, bactericidal, wound-healing, anti-inflammatory and hemostatic effects. It is also used as a flavoring and coloring substance in Chinese cuisine. Dried leaves are applied to add flavor to confectionery products, vinegar, sauces, cheese, salads, bread and meat dishes. Branchlets have once been used as a source of yellow dye for wool.

Fig. 1. Plant habitus: 1 — Artemisia annua, 2 — Artemisia abrotanum, 3 — Artemisia argyi.

Discussion

In the cultivated flora department of the M. M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden plots have been established for introduction and testing the above mentioned species, namely, to perform phenological observations, develop agrotechnological measures for introduction species into cultivation, study impact of biotic and abiotic factors, and to receive raw materials for further research. Studies have been performed to determine duration of phenological stages under controlled management conditions, content of essential oils and other components in raw material at different phenological stages, allelopathic impact of rhizosphere on soil. The plants were cultivated with minimal management and minimum watering (which was provided only a few times during 3 weeks long drought period in Summer 2019, and to the annual sagebrush during replanting and regrowth accompanied by weeding. All plantings were mulched with hardwood chips.

Results and Conclusions

Growth dynamics has been determined: the earliest regrowth was observed for Artemisia abrotanum, at the end of May the plants were 47.5±3.5 cm high, and by September plants completed development reaching the height of 125.4±7.3 cm. Artemisia annua was the last to resprout. By the end of May replanted plants reached the height of 11.6±2.1 cm, and the residential ones — 17.2±5.8 cm. Development of these plants was slow during the first months of vegetation, and replanted plants could not catch up to the height of residential specimens reaching 124.5±5.8 cm vs 235.6±18.4 cm, respectively. Artemisia argyi scored average, being in May 37.3±4.2 cm high and in September 97.3±6.2 cm high. Plants showed signs of stress during extremely hot period in June: leaves at the bottom turned yellow, development slowed down and did not reach the budding stage. This can be explained by the plant's origin (Far East) and shallow (up to 20 cm) root system.

Content of essential oil at different growth stages has been determined by steam distillation. For all studied species the highest content was detected s at the blooming stage: Artemisia abrotanum — 1.6663% per dry matter, Artemisia annua — 2.6544%; Artemisia argyi at regrowth stage— 0.488%. These parameters comply with the highest published figures.

The highest content of vitamin С in all studied species was observed at the growing stage, Artemisia annua is the richest in vitamin C, with 254 mg % of dry matter. Carotene content was the highest during the whole vegetation period in Artemisia annua, ranging from 1.758 mg % at the growing stage to 1.222 mg % of a dry matter at the blooming stage. In other species carotene content was highest at regrowth stage: Artemisia argyi 1.404 mg % and Artemisia abrotanum — 0.967 mg %, further dropping three-fold.

Studies of allelopathic effect of rhizospheric soil at the end of the growing season showed that Artemisia annua showed no allelopathic effect, while in other species this effect was insignificant.

Based on results obtained we can recommend the studied species for test cultivation at small farms and smallholdings as part of polyculture systems in berry patches, gardens and forest gardens as insecticide and fungicide plants, commodity and nutritious crops. Big height of all species and creeping root system of Artemisia argyi make them unsuitable for cultivation between the rows of vegetable crops, as it can shade vegetables and suppress their growth. It is recommended to grow solitary plants. Fungicidal and bactericidal effect of the studied species on the soil require further research.

Table 1. Biochemical characteristics of the studied Artemisia species.

AGROFORESTRY AS A PROFITABLE ALTERNATIVE FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Robert Borek

PhD, adjunct professor, Department of Bioeconomy and Systems Analysis, Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation — State Research Institute in Puławy, Poland (rborek@iung.pulawy.pl)

        Agroforestry (AF) is a climate-smart agriculture practice of deliberately integrating woody vegetation (trees or shrubs) with crop and/or animal systems to benefit from the resulting ecological and economic interactions. 

        Agroforestry practices have the potential to be regenerative, improve ecosystem services at the local and landscape level, and to improve farming productivity and profitability. They improve management of water resources, control erosion, capture carbon and increase biodiversity. Hence, there is a growing interest across countries in temperate climate in developing modern, viable AF systems. Central and Eastern European countries offer great opportunities for developing innovative AF initiatives. Despite many challenges identified (lack of knowledge and skills of AF management and financial performance, lack of tools for planning and design, limited policy support, legal uncertainties and reluctant attitude of farmers), steadily growing research studies and pilot farms practicing AF increase potential to be adopted by farmers and to mitigate adverse impacts on the environment. Participatory approaches, networking events, workshops and trainings for farmers, guidelines and tools are recommended to boost this potential. Inclusion of AF approaches into support schemes and programs at countries level are necessary to reward extra ecosystem services delivered by AF practices. Several research projects provide practical solutions to drive the transition to resilient and efficient land use within farms.

        In December 2019 the three-year H2020 project AFINET (Agroforestry Innovation Networks) came to an end. The key objective of AFINET was to put agroforestry research results into practice, and improving knowledge exchange between different stakeholders on agroforestry activities. The focus was on silvoarable and silvopastoral systems design, management, production and profitability. The most important tool to achieve the project objective was the concept of dynamic multi-actor Regional Agroforestry Innovation Networks or ‘RAINs’. Across nine strategic regions of Europe (Spain, Portugal, Italy, Hungary, France, UK, Belgium, Poland and Finland) a RAIN was created.

        In Poland AFINET project allowed to identify 32 viable AF innovations useful for the country. Among them we can define: rotation cattle farming in traditional orchards, beef cattle farming on wooded pastures, production of shade tolerant herbs/medicinal plants under canopy of fruit bushes, planting mid-field microclimate windbreaks, or forest garden. Almost 40 AFINET innovation factsheets and more than 50 AGFORWARD brochures translated, including several AFINET factsheets, abstracts and articles developed based on Polish case studies. Two Polish movies presenting cultural grazing of sheep on wood pastures and beef cattle grazing in a traditional orchard were produced. AFINET Knowledge Cloud, gathering all materials connected to agroforestry in Europe was updated including 200 Polish documents. Above materials are deposited to AFINET website and most of them are available in 11 languages. Moreover, main bottlenecks and challenges to develop AF in each participating country have been recognized. For instance, Polish recommendations include: to introduce the definition for “Agroforestry” into Polish legal nomenclature; promotion of knowledge about AF, collaboration between experts, establishing demonstration sites and local ventures developing innovative AF products.

References

AFINET project website (2020, February 21). http://www.eurafagroforestry.eu/afinet

EXPLORING AGROFORESTRY IN CALIFORNIA: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES FOR DIVERSIFYING INDUSTRIALIZED AGRICULTURE IN MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATES

Sonja B. Brodt1*, Nina M. Fontana2, Leigh F. Archer3

1PhD, Academic Coordinator, University of California, Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education Program, Davis, California (sbbrodt@ucdavis.edu)

2MSc, graduate student in Ecology, University of California, Davis.

3MSc, formerly graduate student in Horticulture and Agronomy, University of California, Davis, currently graduate student, University of Florida.

California agriculture is a prime example of intensive industrialized farming systems focused on high-yield output of mono-cropped specialty crops. These systems typically require high levels of external inputs, including, in the case of California, substantial amounts of irrigation during the primary growing season. This study sought to identify and explore the feasibility of alternative, more diversified systems, with a focus on agroforestry systems that capitalize on the fact that California already successfully produces many lucrative tree crops. Our goal was to examine the hypothesis that diversified perennial farming systems could enhance ecological intensification, thereby reducing the need for external inputs and increasing the economic resilience and environmental sustainability of agriculture.

We conducted 26 phone and in-person interviews; 16 with farmers practicing agroforestry, and 10 with researchers and extension professionals. All questions were open-ended and focused on descriptions of the agroforestry practices being used (in the case of farmers), motivations for trying agroforestry, and perceived benefits and challenges. Among the farmers, we found seven different agroforestry models being practiced, from cover cropping in single-species orchards to multiple cash crops being combined in multi-story systems that also integrated livestock grazing. Respondents noted benefits of reduced inputs and production costs, and better nutrient cycling, soil health and pest control. Trade-offs and challenges included increases in labor requirements and management complexity. Knowledge gaps included lack of guidance in biophysical systems design, lack of clarity about economic tradeoffs, and lack of information about ecosystem services benefits.

To expand acreage of agroforestry systems in California, we identify needs for improvements in several realms. First, more science-based information is needed for creating optimal species combinations that facilitate essential ecosystem functions. New land tenure institutions could allow multiple farm managers to utilize the same piece of land for their diverse crops. More small-scale equipment must be available to work better under tree crops. Finally, payments for ecosystem services based on agroforestry systems may incentivize more farmers to make room for lower-value annual crops amongst their higher-value tree crops.

Fig. 1. Mixed fruit trees with vegetables intercropped between tree rows in Sacramento Valley, California.

RESTORATION OF SOIL FERTILITY SELF REGULATION IN ORGANIC FARMING

1Olexander Demidenco*, 2Mykhailo Kapshtyk*

1Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Cherkasy Research Station of the National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine (dem006@yandex.ua)

2Candidate of Agricultural Sciences, docent, Training & Coordination Centre of Agricultural Advisory Services, Kyiv, Ukraine (kapshtyk@gmail.com)

Introduction

One of the main conditions for successful organic farming is to ensure good soil fertility and it proper management. For this purpose it is necessary to create conditions for the approximation of soil processes and regimes to the natural counterpart. The chernozems of Ukraine (base-rich Mollisols) reaching 68% of the total area of the country are very fertile but they have become considerably impoverished and degraded due to centuries of mismanagement (Gnatenko, 1998; Shykula, 1998). Soil organic matter (SOM) is particularly vulnerable to severe degradation and there is a strong correlation between the content of SOM and other soil properties that relate to soil fertility (Ponomaryova, & Plotnikova, 1980). The lower fertility and bioproductivity in cultivated chernozems compared to virgin soils are caused not only by losses of organic matter but also by its inability to participate in the seasonal cycles of transformation (Shykula, 1997). Our research shows how difficult it is to ensure a non-deficit balance of SOM using conventional tillage based on mouldboard ploughing (Shykula, & Nazarenko, 1997; Shykula, 1998). Therefore, it is necessary to introduce more up-to-date technologies in crop production systems. For this purpose, a new conservation farming system is described here capable to maintain soil fertility. This system not only ensures higher and more stable yields of crops but reproduces the fertility potential of chernozems and brings about a self-regulation function so that in this respect cultivated soils resemble their virgin counterparts (Shykula, 1993, 1997). Minimum conservational tillage and crop residue management necessary to maintain a high level of biomass for soil formation and to avoid soil structural degradation are the cornerstones of the new conservation cropping system.

Material and Methods

Random soil samples for SOM determination were collected from the depth of 0–10 and 10–20 cm in allocated experimental plot with typical clay loam chernozem. Soil organic carbon was determined using 0.4 N K2Cr2O7 dissolved in dilute H2SO4 (H2SO4 : H2O = 1:1) with subsequent determination of an excess of oxidizer by titration with 0.2 N Mohr salt (FeSO4) solution (Ponomaryova, & Plotnikova, 1980). To evaluate the effects of soil tillage and time factor on soil bioproductivity, crop yield data were obtained on the experimental plots and on the farm fields where no mouldboard ploughing has been used for 5, 12, 25 years and longer.

Results and discussion

Even during the first three years of experiment, the conservation technology with the application of manure at the rate of 12 t∙ha-1 which is equivalent to N80P75K65 we observed renewal of the seasonal cycles of humus formation in soil. SOM content increased only by 0.11% in the 0–20 cm soil layer as soil processed were still largely suppressed by previous moldboard ploughing. In non-plough tilled plots under sugar beet the amplitude of changes in humus content during the period from the spring planting in May to the autumn harvesting in October reached only 0.17–0.22% (Fig. 1). Low amplitude of these fluctuations may be explained by the inability of the soil to come out of "shock" caused by previous mouldboard ploughing. The first change in the quality of soil fertility usually occurs after 5 years of systematic non-plough tillage when the soil renews its internal connections which were destroyed by systematic ploughing. Humus content becomes 0.10 to 0.12 % higher and the amplitude of the SOM fluctuations increases. Fig. 1 shows that non-plough technologies decreased the content of humus in a crop rotation sugar beet — peas — winter wheat from April to August by 0.24 %, while on ploughing it decreased only by 0.16 %. In the next period there was a gradual recompensation of humus. The maximum amplitude of seasonal change in humus content is characteristical to a typical chernozem under long-term grassland (0.31%). After 9 years of the non-plough conservation system the soil acquires the ability to self-regulate its fertility and these changes affect the bioproductivity of the soils. Within 5 years the crop yields have increased by 0.45–0.55 t∙ha-1 in grain units, compared to conventional tillage (Table 1). After a further 5 years, yield increments reach 1.2–2.0 t∙ha-1 compared with conventional technologies. Crop yields also become less dependent upon weather conditions and pesticides. The third hierarchical change in the fertility of the soil occurs after 15 years of systematic use of non-plough technologies when the soil is restored completely to natural processes of soil formation. Yields of crops become 70–100 % higher compared with the initial yields and become ever less dependent upon whether conditions and agricultural chemicals.

Fig. 1. Seasonal cycles of humus in top 0–10 cm layer of typical chernozem influenced by various cropping systems applicated for more than 5 years.

Table 1. Increase of crops yield in farm “Obriy” of Poltava region from 1966 to 1994 years under the influence of soil conservation crop production systems applicated for various periods of time.

Conclusions

The hierarchical changes of soil fertility that occur in discrete steps as described above are the basis for the development of conservation systems of soil tillage and fertilization in Ukraine. Before the first hierarchical change occurs, the system of tillage should be of a non-plough type to varying depths, especially on soil with less than 4.5% SOM content. In the next period, minimum non-plough tillage can be used for all crops and on soils containing more than 4.5% organic matter minimum tillage may be started even in the first years. The system of fertilization should include additional N dressings (N10) for each ton of straw. Thus the use of conservation systems of crop production is a prerequisite for an increased reproduction of soil fertility in chernozems, whereby the natural process of soil formation approaches that of its natural counterpart, at the same time ensuring the maintenance of soil quality, sustainable increased crop yields and a positive impact upon the overall environment.

References

Gnatenko, O.F. (1998). Soil degradation and monitoring: methodological recommendations. Kyiv, Ukraine: National Agricultural University [In Ukrainian]

Ponomaryova, T.A., & Plotnikova, T.A. (1980). Humus and soil formation, Moscow, USSR: Nauka [In Russian]

Shykula, M.K. (1993). Pathways for increasing sustainability in agriculture in a view of economy reforming. Changes in land use in a view of economy reforming. Kyiv, Ukraine: SOPS NASU [In Ukrainian]

Shykula, M.K. (1997). Self-regulation mechanism of soil fertility. In Proceedings of National Agricultural University, 2, 163–171 [In Ukrainian]

Shykula, M.K. (1998). Restoration of soil fertility in conservation farming, Kyiv, Ukraine: Oranta [In Ukrainian]

Shykula, M.K., Nazarenko, G.V. (1997). Minimum tillage of chernozems for fertility restoration. Moscow, Russia: Agropromizdat [In Russian]

POLYCULTURE IN WETLANDS

Valentyna Movchan

Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor, Dean of the Faculty of Biomedical Technologies, Open International University of Human Development "Ukraine", Kyiv, Ukraine (greendragjness16@ukr.net)

Keywords: polyculture, chinampa, wetlands, permaculture.

Abstract. This work is aimed at giving recommendations in establishing polyculture management systems in Ukrainian wetlands using permaculture methods. It takes into consideration global and national aquaculture experience as well as the ancient chinampa system. Instead of draining wetlands, it is suggested to create a chinampa system modified in compliance with Ukraine's conditions, using mostly local species. This will enable getting from "Ukrainian chinampa" high yields of ecologically clean produce without application of fertilizers and pesticides and with minimum input requirements. 

The main global value of wetlands is supporting biodiversity and sustaining ecosystem processes. The Ramsar Convention, signed on February 2, 1971, upholds their conservation and rational use. Local wetlands are equally valuable and should be fully protected and conserved in their natural state. However, in Ukraine, large areas of wetlands have been transformed for agricultural use. Usually such transition starts with drainage, and further exploitation involves regular watering and fertilizing, which requires considerable efforts, time and inputs, and eventually leads to soil degradation and desertification. It would be much more practicable to use the time-proven chinampa system adapted to our conditions in accordance with the principles of permaculture, since shallow wetlands, similarly to tropical rainforests, are the most productive of all existing natural ecosystems.

The chinampa system includes rectangular plots of fertile arable land on lakes or river shoals, from which a few yields have been collected annually without any crop rotation. This system was created by Indigenous Central American communities thousands of years ago and it is still being used. Chinampa systems in their classical form have embodied the best existing features of land and water management and are widely used to grow fish, vegetables, ducks, fruit trees etc., and they have been declared vital by the World Agricultural Heritage. Bill Mollison has broadened this idea, having included into it any system where the succession of parallel canals and shores (islands) is used to grow plant and animal products. This is the interpretation of "chinampa" term that we use here.

We have to separate water and land, similarly to what Aztecs did, but with some modifications. To create a set of oblong islands and canals between them, the shore line of each island should first be constructed of solid pegs or concrete poles located at a distance of around 0.5 m, braced with geotextile or durable mesh that should form a two-meter-high wall (based on the 1.5 m channel depth). All soil should be taken out from the future canal bed and lifted to the island. The canal width is 2 m, the island width depends on the user's resources and plans. It is necessary to take into account that the strip of land approximately 0.5 m wide along the shore should be allocated to riparian vegetation selected for bank stabilization, provision of mulching material and feed for aquatic organisms inhabiting canal, as well as for the preservation of biodiversity. A pathway 0.5 m wide should go along this strip.

The most expedient way to manage the productive part of the island is, probably, through the establishment of Warm Rozum beds in various modifications; This will allow for minimal labor and time inputs needed to grow the produce. Thus, the minimum width of the island shall be 3.2 m (where, at each bank, 0.5 m is taken by the bank line and 0.5 m — by the strip, total 2 m plus 1.2 m for a Warm Rozum bed).

After the islands have been built, it is necessary to plant bank vegetation for stabilization. It is important to pick species with root systems that will form a secure foothold for the bank line, preventing its washout, and at the same time will produce green mass, preferably fruits, while not shading out the beds. In Ukraine a great variety of plants can be used for these purposes, such as willow, European oak, grey alder, plum tree, mulberry tree, elder tree, blueberry, cranberry, bilberry, red bilberry, cranberry tree, cloudberry, reeds, bulrush, reed grass, water mint etc. Planting density and tree height should be managed, balancing between the bank reinforcement needs and shadowing capacity. Tall-growing trees from the northern side of the island will serve as protection from the northern cold winds, shade the canal and be the source of fallen leaves which will serve as fertilizer. Bushes and grass should grow from the southern side of the island.

Along the whole bank line near the water, fodder crops for fish, birds and other canal inhabitants should thrive, spreading its sprouts on the water, such as: dolichos, comfrey, nasturtium, Ipomoea aquatica, Zizania (wild rice) etc. Most of these plants are edible (and even considered gourmet food) for both fish, waterfowl, and humans. While we know nasturtium as a plant that can be used in salads, Ipomoea aquatica, also known as "water spinach", can grow in our area due to climate change. It grows incredibly fast and is liked by fish, birds and other animals. Special attention should be given to Zizania or wild rice, which is not related to rice at all; it is a herbaceous plant up to 2 m high, that can yield up to 500 g of rice-resembling grain from one stem. This grain is extremely valuable as a food product for human consumption (and respectfully expensive). Additionally, the plant is low-maintenance, cold-hardy and reseeds itself.

The canal should also accommodate local water plants: arrowhead, ditch reed, bulrush, yellow pond lily, reed-grass, sweet flag (calamus) etc.; taking approximately a quarter of all area, they will give shelter and feed to fish and other water inhabitants. As the water plants grow, it will be necessary to partially remove them, using that part for mulching and preparing compost on the island. There should be a 2.5 m deep wintering hole for fish. Ducks provide the water body with a significant amount of fertilizers; you can also apply kitchen waste of animal origin. The most efficient means to maintain stable oxygen concentration in water, raise bottom water temperature and stir near-bottom cumuli of organic remnants to accelerate their mineralization and nutrient cycling, is solar-powered aerator that pumps air through the water column starting from the bottom. An additional source of animal feed for fish can be provided with floating lamps with solar-powered batteries with recharge during the day and also attract insects at night.

In Ukraine, water polyculture proved itself to be advantageous. Water polyculture is simultaneous production of aquatic organisms that differ in the way they feed and in the zones they inhabit, in a water body comprising endemic and introduced fish species; namely, benthofags (feed on the bottom): carp, wild carp, tench, crucian carp, salmon, sterlet, broad whitefish, muksun, cisco; zooplankton feeders (feed on maxillopoda in water column): bighead carp, vendace, peled, goldfish; plant feeder (eats higher water plants): grass carp; phytoplankton feeder (eats tiny algae and suspended detritus): silver carp; predatory fish (feed on small low-value local fish): inconnu, pike perch, pike, sheatfish.

Border effect in aquatic systems is more obvious than in land systems, therefore it's not expedient to aim at creation of wide canals: the longer shoreline is available per water plate unit area, the more biomass is produced for feed and fertilization of the aquatic system, and for mulching and compost production in the land system. Even if no fish feed is added, fodder plants, fallen leaves and runoff will promote fast sludge setting in the canal; sludge should be regularly removed from the bottom and used as fertilizer for the island.

It should be taken into consideration that aquatic systems are extremely vulnerable to biocides, and the latter should not be allowed to enter the water body. Instead it is necessary to aim at maximum biodiversity which will ensure sustainability of the ecosystem. Everyone decides for themselves what to grow in the canals and on the islands. It can be fish, crawfish, shellfish, aquatic plants (edible and decorative), waterfowl, swamp beavers etc., and a full range of agricultural products on the islands, both in the Warm Rozum beds and in the bank lines.

Summary. In the "Ukrainian chinampa" system islands and canals complement each other and close the nutrients cycle, while the sufficient amount of mulch, compost and sludge builds fertile soil layer, regulates pH and provides ecologically-clean yields of land and aquatic crops, fully in line with the principles of permaculture.

COMPARING AND SEEKING COMPLEMENTARITY BETWEEN FOUR FARM DESIGN APPROACHES

Melissa Vogt

Independent researcher (melissaanneberylvogt@gmail.com)

Increasing functional biodiversity in agricultural systems and landscapes is a positive environmental outcome. Farm and landscape design offers an opportunity for improved consistency. In literature, comparison and considerations of complementarity between design approaches, even at a theoretical level is not amply available. Improved understanding is expected to increase design use and consistency in functional biodiversity outcomes.

Four farm design approaches are considered by narrative literature review. The article uses the ecological sensitivity within human realities (ESHR) conceptual frame to select and assess information determining contribution of each design to functional biodiversity outcomes. The ESHR draws attention to dimensional biodiversity as essential for functional biodiversity. Farm designs and unique techniques are explained and identified through this lens. Findings are applied to a coffee farm and landscape context. They are presented visually and through specific written examples to demonstrate new understandings.

Each farm design results in slightly different biodiversity outcomes, more recognizable at an ecological and human realities level. Unique techniques from some of the farm designs offer opportunity for combinations and complementarity to improve niche ecological conditions and eventually functional biodiversity outcomes.

Improved understanding of each farm design and of the presented results can contribute to future research and practice. ESHR aligned design offers an opportunity for niche and consistent functional biodiversity outcomes for coffee systems and landscapes. It can facilitate capability and allow for varying productive intentions.

IMPACT OF BLACK TRUFFLE INOCULATION (TUBER MELANOSPORUM VS 1223) ON THE DIVERSITY OF SOIL AND PLANT MICROFLORA IN THE ECOSYSTEM

Victorija Oliferchuk

PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Ecology, National University of Technology of Ukraine, Lviv, Ukraine (victorijaoliferchuk@gmail.com)

Keywords: Tuber melanosporum, bioindication, fungal preparations, melanin

Soil is a regenerative natural resource that sustains life on Earth. Soil fungi are among the most abundant organisms on our planet which are primarily responsible for humus formation in soil.

Similarly to all biological organisms, soil fungi respond to changes in the environment being a sensitive indicator of ecosystem status. Each soil type and plant community is characterized by a specific composition of micromycetes, including dominant, random, and rare species.

We use a bioindication method with soil micromycetes to determine the quality of the plant growing environment. Bioindication is based on determining environmental quality based on composition and abundance of sensitive bioindicator species. Data were analyzed using a correlation pleiades statistical method applied in community ecology with distinctive groups of hyphomycetes for particular biogeocenoses. Among hydromyctetes melanin-containing (dark pigmented) deuteromycetes serve as a sensitive soil bioindicators. They are resistant to UV and radioactive emission, environmental pollutants, such as heavy metals, pesticides, surfactants, as shown in numerous studies (Nazarovets at al, 2017; Zhdanova, & Vasilevskaya, 1988; Zhdanova, & Zakharchenko, 2013).

We have been studying melanin containing deuteromycetes for over 20 years, and we noticed an increase in the abundance and diversity of this group of species in soil ecotopes disturbed by human activity (Oliferchuk, Nazarovets, & Taras, 2014; Kopiy, Oliferchuk, & Kopiy, 2016; Kopiy, & Oliferchuk, 2016).

Tuber melanosporum VS 1223 is a melanin-containing ascomycete which is the component of the preparation “Mikovital” which we used for plant mycorhization to study impact on soil quality (Oliferchuk, & Oliferchuk, 2006).

An important stress adaptation mechanism for fungal communities to stress factors is the modification of species composition, when more sensitive groups are replaced by less sensitive ones within the functional groups in community. Inoculation of soils polluted with heavy metals, pesticides and other pollutants with Tuber melanosporum VS 1223 led to increase in abundance and diversity of zymogenic and autochthonous groups of micromycetes, while abundance and diversity of parasitic fungi decreased. We associate this positive effect with the properties of melanin (Oliferchuk, & Oliferchuk, 2006; Shcherba et al, 2000).

While the chemical structure of melanins has not yet been completely discovered, its molecular formula is С77Н98О33. Unpaired electrons discovered in melanin define its nature as a stable free radical. Therefore, in parallel with enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase melanin serves as a protector from oxygen radicals (O2.2-) and singlet oxygen (1.[O.2]), which are the strong oxidizing agents. Without melanin, the cells that produce free radicals would quickly die. Melanin from fungus is the most powerful bio-protectors for living cells from adverse external and internal factors. Melanins are also the strongest natural antioxidants. Melanins are capable of neutralizing various free radicals that are produced in a living cell as a result of penetrating radiation, ultraviolet radiation, various toxins and enzymes of pathogenic bacteria. Our research is supported by previous research on this topic (Zhdanova, & Vasilevskaya, 1988; Zhdanova, & Zakharchenko, 2013).

Melanin from Inonotus obliquus and some tinder fungi possess proven photo- and radioprotective, antioxidant and genetic protective properties (Shcherba et al, 2000; Sushinskaya et al, 2005).

According to American researchers, melanin acts not only as a protector, but ionizing radiation could also change the electronic properties of melanin and might enhance the growth of melanized microorganisms (Dadachova et al, 2007).

Strain Tuber melanosporum VS1223 (with vegetative cells sized approx. 7⨯109 cm3) has unique properties and produces a number of biologically active substances (these studies are ongoing):

• Gibberellins: tetracyclic carboxylic acids of diterpene group, gibberellic acid.
• Antibiotics: trichocetin — growth inhibitor of phytopathogenic fungi; griseofulvin — growth inhibitor of pathogens, rust, scab and other pathogens.
• Vitamins: B2; ergosterol — source material for production of steroid hormones; for production of vitamin D2, of therapeutic and nutritional products.
• Polysaccharides: glucan, mannan, xanthan which possess phytopathogenic properties.
• Amino acids: phenylalanine, leucine, methionine, lysine (required for production of digestive enzymes, Ca transport into cells, improve the overall N metabolism).
• Enzymes: amylase, cellulase.
• Protocols for “Mikovital” application have been developed for agriculture, forestry, ornamental gardens, and land restoration efforts (Oliferchuk, 2016, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2019; Oliferchuk, & Yukal, 2006). “Mikovital” has following effects on plant growth:
• Improves plant absorption of phosphorus, nitrogen, zinc, iron, calcium, potassium, manganese, magnesium, sulfur and other trace elements from soil;
• Promotes nitrogen transfer to plants via non-leachable form of ammonium (comparing to leachable nitrates) which is absorbed by fungus from and incorporates into plant tissue;
• Promotes root growth and photosynthesis rate when applied to seeds.
• Produces antibiotics that increase resistance to soil borne diseases: phytophthora, fusariosis, bacteriosis, as well as to nematodes.

With such outstanding characteristics this fungal preparation is widely used for regenerative agriculture in Ukraine and abroad (Oliferchuk, 2016, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c, 2019; Oliferchuk, & Oliferchuk, 2006; Oliferchuk, Paslavsky, & Ruda, 2016a, 2016b; Oliferchuk, Nazarovets, & Taras, 2014; Oliferchuk, & Yukal, 2006).

Tuber melanosporum VS 1223, establishes an extensive mycorrhizal network with plant roots becoming a part of the immune system in plant superorganism. It releases an adhesive protein glomalin that structures soil and increases its porosity for water and air. This protein is extensively excreted by mycorrhiza and constitutes 1/3 of the soil carbon pool. The richness of soil microorganisms and thus soil biological activity are also enhanced. Plants receive better balanced nutrition according to requirements of each developmental stage.

Economic benefits from "Mikovital" application in agriculture significantly exceeds its cost during the first season as a result of yield increase and decreasing expenses on fertilizers, irrigation, and disease protection.

The preparation is applied on root for perennial trees and shrubs, as well as to seeds or seedlings which are inoculated before planting or during transplanting. We combine described mycorrhization technology with the other organic biotechnologies.

Tuber melanosporum VS 1223 is deposited at the Institute of Microbiology and Virology. of J.K. Zabolotny of NASU. “Mikovital” has passed state registration and an Organic Standard certification proving that it is environmentally safe, does not accumulate in soil and is not toxic to humans, animals and insects (Oliferchuk, & Oliferchuk, 2006).

Table 1. Influence of the Tuber melanosporum VS 1223 on the growth of hazelnut seedlings.

References

References

Dadachova, E., Bryan, R.A., Huang, X., Moadel, T., Schweitzer, A.D., Aisen, P., et al. (2007). Ionizing radiation changes the electronic properties of melanin and enhances the growth of melanized fungi. Plos One, 2(5), e457

Kopiy M.L., & Oliferchuk V.P. (2016). Mycological structure of soil within the formed ecotopes of disturbed landscapes of Yavoriv sulfur quarry. Scientific Bulletin of the National Forestry University of Ukraine, 26(1),174–181 [In Ukrainian]

Kopiy, M.L., Oliferchuk, V.P, & Kopiy L.I. (2016). Species diversity of soil micromycetes in the territory of the Novorossiysk sulfur quarry. Scientific Bulletin of the National Forestry University of Ukraine, 26(3):278–287 [In Ukrainian]

Nazarovets, V.R, Oliferchuk, V.P, Kopiy, L.I, Kopiy, M.L. (2017). Succession of phytocenoses within the Podorozhny sulfur quarry. Agro-ecological journal, 27(1):121–127. [In Ukrainian]

Oliferchuk V.P., & Oliferchuk S.P. (2006). Patent 111174 (19) UA (51) IPC A01 N 63/04 (2006. 01) C12N 1/14 (2006.01). Complex biologically active preparation for regulation of plant development and growth on the basis of spore suspension of mycorrhizal fungi “Mikovital”. Retrieved from: http://uapatents.com/5-111174-kompleksnijj-biologichno-aktivnijj-preparat-dlya-regulyaci-rozvitku-ta-rostu-roslin-na-osnovi-sporovo-suspenzi-gribiv-mikorizoutvoryuvachiv-mikovital.html

Oliferchuk V.P., & Yukal I.I. (2006). Patent No. 127699 (19) UA (11) 127699 (51) IPC (2018.01) A01G 7/06 (2006/01) A01G 23/00 A01N 63/02 (2006/01) A01P 21/00 A method of growing a vegetable crop with systemic mycorrhization of planting material.

Oliferchuk V.P., Nazarovets V.R, & Taras V.M. (2014). Variety of micromycetes in soils of devastated lands. Agro-ecological journal, 1, 98–102 [In Ukrainian]

Oliferchuk V.P., Paslavsky M.M., & Ruda M.V. (2016a). Patent 111249 Ukraine (19) UA (11) 111249 (13) C2 (51) IPC (2016.01) C05F 11/08 (2006.01) C05F 15/00. Method of phytoremediation of devastated soils. Retrieved from: http://uapatents.com/5-111249-sposib-fitorizoremediaci-devastovanikh-runtiv.html

Oliferchuk V.P., Paslavsky M.M., & Ruda M.V. (2016b). Patent 111393 Ukraine (19) UA (11) 111393 (13) C2 (51) IPC (2016.01) C05F 11/08 (2006.01). Method for the rhizoremediation of devastated soils. Retrieved from: http://uapatents.com/5-111393-sposib-rizoremediaci-devastovanikh-zemel.html

Oliferchuk, V.P. (2016). Mycorrhiza — the means of natural biostimulation of a nut orchard. Nut-tree, 1, 30–31 [In Ukrainian]

Oliferchuk, V.P. (2018a). Mycorrhization of hazelnuts with black truffle. Sontsesad library. Hazelnut, 4, 28–29. [In Ukrainian]

Oliferchuk, V.P. (2018b). Tomatoes, hazelnuts and soybeans under the influence of mycorrhization. Agroindustry, March, 37–39 [In Ukrainian]

Oliferchuk, V.P. (2018c). Mycorrhization is the way to restore soil. Agroindustry, January, 37–39 [In Ukrainian]

Oliferchuk, V.P. (2019). Mycorrhiza and restoration of triple symbiosis in soil for high yields of berry crops. Yagidnyk. 3, 94–96. [In Ukrainian]

Shcherba, V.V., Babitskaya, V.G., Kurchenko, I.P., Ikonnikov, N.V., & Kukulianskaya, T.A. (2000). Antioxidant properties of melanin pigments of fungal origin. Applied Biochemistry and Microbiology. 36(5), 569–574

Sushinskaya, N.V., Kurchenko, I.P, Horovyi, L.F, Senyuk & A.F. (2005). Preparation and use in medicine of melanins from the fungal fungi. Success of Medical Mycology. 6, 255–259. [In Russian]

Zhdanova N.N., & Vasilevskaya A.I. (1988). Melanin-containing mushrooms in extreme conditions. Kyiv, Ukraine: Naukova Dumka [In Russian]

Zhdanova N.N., & Zakharchenko V.A. (2013). Mycobiota of the Ukrainian Polesуe: consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. Kyiv, Ukraine: Naukova Dumka [In Russian]

BLACK TRUFFLE MYCORRHIZA SUSTAINS BIODIVERSITY IN PERMACULTURE SYSTEMS

Victorija Oliferchuk

PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Ecology, Ukrainian National Forestry University, Lviv, Ukraine (victorijaoliferchuk@gmail.com)

Keywords: mycorrhiza, plant communities, Warm Rozum Bed (WRB)

The plant root zone is a specific environment for interaction between different components of microbiota, including bacteria and fungi. Organic and mineral compounds excreted by plants roots serve as nutrition for microorganisms, increasing their population 100 fold in plant rhizosphere. Not only does microbial density increase, but also the succession of microbial populations, which are important for good plant growth. The latter becomes the main priority when designing plant communities. Gram-negative bacteria (pseudomonads and flavobacteria) dominate the early stages of plant community succession, while gram-positive spore forming bacteria (mycobacteria, actinobacteria) populate the rhizosphere of aging plants. Some bacterial groups are associated with certain plant species, such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the genus Azospirillum, as well as certain species belonging to genera Agrobacterium, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas. Besides, there is a big diversity of soil fungi — micromycetes and ascomycetes that form mycorrhizae with plants. Mycorrhizal relationships are not species-specific: one plant can host several fungal species, and one fungal species may be associated with several plant species.

How do we recreate these harmonious and precisely balanced environments for macro- and microbiota in designed plant communities? There are several methods that need to be used in order to establish an environmentally-friendly permaculture environment.

• Stage One: Exploring on-site soil conditions, including chemical (nutrients available) and mycological (available and missing fungal groups involved in nutrient transfer to plants) soil composition. Step-by-step planting schemes should be developed to introduce key plant and associated microbial and fungal groups into the ecosystem and shape total onsite microbiota.
• Stage Two: Introduction of the key species microbial and fungal species into the soil. Preserving microbial and fungal biodiversity is an integral part of the international program for the conservation of natural biodiversity. Nowadays, soil tests are available to identify keystone functional groups of hyphomycetes. Statistical and mathematical methods of correlation pleiades and dendrograms of functional similarity have been developed to identify keystone fungal species that determine soil conditions in a given ecotope.

For 20 years we have been studying the impact of the Tuber melanosporum strain VS1223 on species diversity of soil mycobiota. Our findings demonstrate that this strain plays a key functional role in all studied soil samples in different ecotopes across Ukraine. It forms the mycorrhizal association with plants roots, which help restore and balance microflora in plant histosphere, rhizoplane and rhizosphere (Oliferchuk & Oliferchuk, 2006).

From a practical point of view, inoculation of plant roots with the fungal preparation "Mikovital" during transplanting of trees, shrubs, and seedlings, as well seed treatment before sowing, leads to the formation of a common mycorrhizal network for mutualistic plant guild. This is designed according to permaculture principles that provide functional support for plant communities and thus reducing maintenance. We have successfully established such guilds on soils degraded by sulfur mining as well as in the recreation and safeguard buffer zones near factories (Oliferchuk, Paslavsky, & Ruda, 2016a, 2016 b). Currently, we are designing plant guilds for ornamental and land reclamation purposes for community parks and private estates (Oliferchuk, 2018a, 2018b, 2019; Oliferchuk & Oliferchuk, 2006, 2019).

Permaculture Movements in Ukraine

Technology of Warm Rozum Beds (WRB) is the driver of Ukrainian permaculture movement, being an environmentally sound approach to soil restoration and organic farming. This is an application of principles of regenerative land use and establishment of Common Mycorrhizal Network in local ecosystems. This technology has potential for the large scale land restoration with global environmental impact.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that 23% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (2007–2016) derive from Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use and which exceeds the impact of transportation (14%) and household heating and cooking (6%) (Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data, 2020). Regenerative land management and technologies such as Warm Rozum Beds (WRB) which re-establish the Common Mycorrhizal Network would help to restore lands degraded by industrial agriculture, unsustainable forestry, mining, as well as maintain soil fertility in parks and private gardens. It could even combat global environment degradation processes climate change.

Widespread knowledge environmentally sound land management principles will promote loving, caring attitudes from young people and older generations to all living beings on Earth. It will raise the overall level of ecological culture in Ukraine, while developing modern biotechnologies for soil restoration.

References

Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Data. (2020, February 22). Retrieved from: https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/global-greenhouse-gas-emissions-data

Oliferchuk V.P., & Lukyanchuk N.G. (2019). Conservation and restorationof the Lvіv's tourist and recreation complex for the bio-technology of regenerative land use. In: A. Kuzyk et al. (eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Scientific and Practical Conference "Ecological safety of objects of tourist and recreational complex" (pp. 49–50). Lviv, Ukraine: LSULS

Oliferchuk V.P., & Oliferchuk S.P. (2006). Patent 111174 (19) UA (51) IPC A01 N 63/04 (2006. 01) C12N 1/14 (2006.01). Complex biologically active preparation for regulation of plant development and growth on the basis of spore suspension of mycorrhizal fungi “Mikovital”. Retrieved from: http://uapatents.com/5-111174-kompleksnijj-biologichno-aktivnijj-preparat-dlya-regulyaci-rozvitku-ta-rostu-roslin-na-osnovi-sporovo-suspenzi-gribiv-mikorizoutvoryuvachiv-mikovital.html

Oliferchuk V.P., Paslavsky M.M., & Ruda M.V. (2016a). Patent 111249 Ukraine (19) UA (11) 111249 (13) C2 (51) IPC (2016.01) C05F 11/08 (2006.01) C05F 15/00. Method of phytoremediation of devastated soils. Retrieved from: http://uapatents.com/5-111249-sposib-fitorizoremediaci-devastovanikh-runtiv.html

Oliferchuk V.P., Paslavsky M.M., & Ruda M.V. (2016b). Patent 111393 Ukraine (19) UA (11) 111393 (13) C2 (51) IPC (2016.01) C05F 11/08 (2006.01). Method for the rhizoremediation of devastated soils. Retrieved from: http://uapatents.com/5-111393-sposib-rizoremediaci-devastovanikh-zemel.html

Oliferchuk, V.P. (2018). Mycorrhization is the way to restore soil. Agroindustry. January, 37–39. [In Ukrainian]

Oliferchuk, V.P. (2018b). Mycorrhization of hazelnuts with black truffle. Sontsesad library. Hazelnut, 4:28–29. [In Ukrainian]

Oliferchuk, V.P. (2019) Mycorrhiza and restoration of triple symbiosis in soil for high yields of berry crops. Yagidnyk, 3, 94–96. [In Ukrainian]

POLYCULTURAL MANAGEMENT OF WARM ROZUM BEDS AT THE SCHOOL GARDEN OF PLEBANIVSKA SCHOOL IN THE PROJECT “THE EYE OF THE UNIVERSE’’

Volodymyr Rozum

Author of Warm Rozum Beds, Plebanivska junior and middle school (v.m.rozum@ukr.net)

Keywords: Warm Rozum Beds (WRZ), school gardens, borshch guild, permaculture design, mycorrhizae

Abstract

This work is aimed at providing recommendations to create a polycultural gardening system at a school garden utilizing the technology of Warm Rozum Beds (WRB) within the permaculture design context. Rather than teaching conventional growing of fruits and vegetables at school, we suggest providing opportunities for pupils to learn the basics of organic farming, permaculture and applied ecology utilizing the polyculture system at WRB. This training motivates students to continue education in natural sciences while also providing support for subsistence growing of environmentally-sourced food with minimal efforts.

For over 9 years, pupils have been experimenting with cultivation of vegetables and fruits crop, using the WRB method at the Plebanivska school garden. Each class is responsible for the cultivation of particular vegetables, fruit trees and berries, thus training starts from the first school year. Moving up, the pupils learn technology for cultivating another crop using the WRB method. They practice cultivation of the main garden crops, such as strawberries, currants, raspberries and a fruit orchard in an alley cropping permaculture design gaining practical knowledge in organic farming and permaculture during school years. Teachers of natural sciences — biology, chemistry, physics, geography — use this opportunity to extend teaching with practical examples of processes and natural mechanisms associated with this form of cultivation.

Besides the basics of organic farming which are the initial and compulsory stage of practical ecological education, students cover the next stage of the environmental education — permaculture. The latter focuses on sustainable production of healthy food using multispecies assemblages, while increasing soil fertility with minimal labor and resource input. Besides, this technology allows to recycle locally organic waste (grass, twigs, fallen leaves, food residues) using them as mulch or organic material for filling ditches of organic strips at the WRB. Processed by soil organisms, these residues turn into nutrition for crops. Thus, no organic waste is piled on a plot, neither it is burnt or dumped. Everything that came from soil returns to the soil.

A seventh-grader Veronika Hychko designed a permaculture garden called “The Eye of the Universe” based on the WRB on a part of the school plot of land for cultivation of vegetables, fruits, berries, and various herbs (medicinal plants, spices, tea herbs and flowers). The plants are inoculated with black truffle mycorrhiza and form several horizontal layers of vegetation according to alley cropping technology. The central element of the system comprises two parallel vegetable garden WRBs in the form of a snake-shaped belt running down southwards. This shape and mutual alignment of beds creates spots of nutrients and moisture concentration.

This system allows growth in one bed, during one rotation cycle, both moisture-loving and drought-tolerant crops. The winding shape of the bed, in particular curves downslope, allows to efficiently hold moisture in the beds, starting from the winter season. The addition of water retaining bentonite clay into organic strips improves water storage, while black truffle mycorrhiza increases efficiency of water absorption by plant roots.

During the previous season, 11 garden crops were cultivated simultaneously in such beds; dense planting by Ovsinskyi enabled fast crop growth while outcompeting weeds.

In addition, densely planted beds need less mulching. Therefore, organic matter is mostly used for filling ditches of organic strips to efficiently retain moisture. In addition, it is used to surface cultivation by Ovsinskyi on planting strips after rainfall.

Here are a few examples of allelopathic crop combination on such beds:

1. "Borshch guild" — when an onion is planted in autumn, carrot is sewn in early spring, followed by beetroot and bell pepper. Plants from "borshch guild" belong to different families: carrot to Umbelliferae, onion to Amaryllidaceae, pepper to nightshades, and beetroot — to Amaranthaceae. In this combination, the plants have a positive effect on each other's growth and on the soil health, as crops from different families have different nutritional requirements and do not compete with each other for nutrients. Besides, they attract different pests and diseases, thus the risk of cross infection is lower. Finally, plants belonging to different families excrete different substances into the soil; this mitigates soil fatigue and significantly facilitates crop rotation.
2. Another similar example is joint cultivation of strawberry with onion, garlic and tomatoes. Onion and garlic are bedded in autumn, while tomato seedlings are transplanted in May between the strawberry plants into the holes made by a spade handle. In such a combination, onion and garlic sanitize the soil. An additional measure to prevent diseases (blight, scab, fusarium rot etc.) is the application of the antagonist fungus trichoderma (Trihoderma lignorum), while for pest protection the entomopathogenic fungus metarhizium (Metarhizium anizopliae) and beauveria (Beauveria bassiana) can be applied. Such companionship should keep pests under control and promote excellent yields.
3. Vegetable beds may be composed of onion, garlic and high-growing tomatoes. Onion and garlic are planted alongside the edges with tomatoes growing in the middle.

Planting at WRB was performed according to three principles. Firstly, trees should be planted in small planting holes, according to Holzer, in unfertilized soil in a certain succession, to encourage formation of deep root system efficient in accessing moisture and nutrients. Secondly, the roots of transplants should be inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi. And thirdly, specifically designed WRBs for orchards with ditches filled with organic matter. These ditches are established along the tree line, where the root system and mycorrhiza will develop, forming common mycorrhizal-root network of orchard, which support fast growth of shoots. In such systems, trees and shrubs are much healthier and better resist adverse climatic conditions, diseases and pests.

An example of such a system is three parallel WRBs inoculated with mycorrhiza with currant bushes, raspberry shrubs, apple trees and perennial herbs.

At the WRBs where 4 years ago currant cuttings brought by the pupils were planted, 90% of the cuttings develop roots despite no watering provided during all 4 years. Main maintenance was carried out by fifth-graders who mulched the bed and applied beneficial microorganisms. As of today, not a single one of 50 currant bushes is affected by disease or pests (there is even not a single bush with aphids on it). Since all currant bushes are connected with mycorrhizal network, they represent a single healthy organism that successfully resists diseases and pests. Berries are big, very tasty and sweet, since WRB provides all necessary nutrients to the bushes. Raspberry and fruit trees that have been planted using the same scheme also grow and develop with minimal care.

Summary

Permaculture with WRBs focuses on creating the most favorable conditions for soil micro- and macroorganisms, and their activity improves plant growth, soil health and fertility. This is achieved by various functional zones for nutrient and moisture concentration within the WRBs according to the principles of permaculture. Simple management and universal pattern makes WRB promising technology for natural gardening is subsistence and commercial setting to maintain soil health, fertility, and good yield with minimal inputs. The WRB technology can be used for growing healthy food goth in rural and urban settings, as well as for recycling of organic and food residues.