Barriers Faced by High-School Students in the College Admission Process

Marissa Dilisio, Allie Overstreet, Saralee Amason, Maggie Crosby

The University of Georgia

Introduction

There are several factors that make the transition from high school to college more difficult for some students compared to others.  For instance, the research consistently shows that students who come from low socioeconomic families face more disadvantage in the transition than students who come from families with more resources (Bastedo, & Flaster, 2014; Black, Cortes, & Lincove, 2015; Blackwell, & Pinder, 2014 Bourdieu, 2001; Danielson, & Sander, 2014; Fosnacht, 2014; Radford, & Howell, 2014; Walpole, 2003).  Additionally,  being a racial or ethnic minority (Black et al., 2015; Danielson et al., 2014; Perna, & Titus, 2016; Rios-Aguilar, & Marquez Kiyama, 2012; Roderick, Coca, & Nagaoka, 2011; Walpole, 2003) or  a first generation college student also poses challenges compared to student who are white or come from families with previous college-educated generations  (Blackwell et al., 2014; Peter, & David, 2008; Petty, 2014; Stebleton, & Soria, 2013; Unverferth, Talbert-Johnson, & Bogard, 2012). . The body of literature shows that in addition to student’s barrier of low-income, racial/ethnic minority, or first-generation colleges students often suffer from lack of preparation for change in workload from high school students to college students taking courses with more rigor along with working to afford their education and transition from taking high school courses to applying to colleges to further their education (Perna et al., 2016; Petty, 2014; Roderick et al., 2011; Unverferth et al., 2012).

The lack of preparation for change in responsibilities from high school to college can be intensified for low socioeconomic students due to the gap of abundant wealth and resources available for middle or high socioeconomic families compared to the lack of wealth and resources available for low socioeconomic families (Bastedo et al., 2014; Black et al., 2015; Blackwellet al., 2014 Bourdieu, 2001; Fosnacht, 2014; Radford et al., 2014). Another barrier that results in lack of preparation is race, specifically those in racial ethnic minority groups (Black et al., 2015; Danielson et al., 2014; Perna et al., 2016; Rios-Aguilar et al., 2012; Roderick et al., 2011; Walpole, 2003). Less preparation or more stressful transitions are also found from first generation college students as they lack a family member who can offer support and knowledge in these areas (Blackwell et al., 2014; Peter et al., 2008; Petty, 2014; Stebleton et al., 2013; Unverferth et al., 2012). Analysis shows that low socioeconomic status effects the college application process more than race in admission to colleges (Danielson et al., 2014; Walpole, 2003). This body of literature breaks down some of the barriers high school students face through the college application process and then continues to mention what research has shown that might act as strategies for success.

First, the impact of low-socioeconomic status and its implications are explored. Next, the influence of race in high school student’s applications to college is introduced through indications in research. Following that, the effect of high school students who are applying to go to college as first-generation college students is examined. Lastly, strategies for success is analyzed and compared among each other.

Socioeconomic Status

Many students who are applying and attending colleges and university mostly come from the upper class (Roderick, Coca, and Nagaoka, 2011).  It is harder and harder for lower socioeconomic-class students to compete with upper socioeconomic-class students, not because they don’t have the knowledge to get into school, but because of the many financial and social barriers that are retraining them (Bastedo & Flaster, 2014).  Research shows that many low-income students who are qualified for a four year college are less likely to apply to a top-tier school or even go to a four year college compared to upper-income students which is a rising problem in our society

Lower income students often fail to apply for more four year colleges and prestigious schools not only because of the price to attend these universities, but also because of the history of these high schools not sending students to these schools (Roderick, et al., 2011).  A lot of information that potential students obtain is from seeing what others have done and experienced at that institution.  Eighty-two percent of high school students from upper-income families enroll in college the fall semester after their graduation compared to 51% of students who come from low- and middle income families (Black, Cortes & Lincove, 2015).  Lower SES status students lack mentorship and leadership.  Watching someone go through the college process and attend a post-secondary school after high school graduation can impact other students’ choices for their personal futures.

Research demonstrates academic undermatch, which is when high achieving high school students who are qualified to attend more selective schools are instead going to lower-ranking ones (Smith, Pender, and Howell, 2012). There is a large percentage of high school students from low-income, minority, or from first-generation families undermatching compared to higher SES students  (Radford & Howell, 2014). From a study done in the Chicago Public Schools in 2005, out of all the students who applied to college, more than half of graduating seniors undermatched (Smith, et al., 2012). Increasingly, research is being conducted to better understand the idea of undermatching and the reasons it is an expanding issue with students from disadvantaged homes (Bastedo & Flaster, 2014).

Overall, there has been an increase in college enrollment from high school graduates, including among low-income students (Bastedo & Flaster, 2014).  As high SES students are also increasing their enrollment rates, though, the previous gap in “college access and admissions across family income” (Bastedo & Flaster, 2014, p.93) is widening.  Research is showing that students from lower SES families have a 15% higher chance of undermatching compared to other students from higher income families (Radford & Howell, 2014).

There has been work done to increase scholarship opportunities and have more college preparation at lower-income schools.  Even with this added assistance, students from low SES families continue to undermatch consistently, which correlates negatively to whether or not students will succeed and finish college (Fosnacht, 2014).  Undermatching overall is an issue that our society is facing.  Only a little more than 50% of students who are enrolled in a four-year college will graduate and get their degrees within six years (Smith, et al., 2012).  Many students from low-income communities attend four and two-year schools that are less selective and have low graduation and completion rates (Sherwin, 2012).  Studies show though that students who attend college that matches their academic preparation will more likely graduate and perform well in their jobs well after (Radford & Howell, 2014).  Students on the other hand who don’t enroll in college are less likely to graduate, increase their risk of health problems, and decrease their job opportunities which influences their income and economic status (Blastedo & Flaster, 2014).

We know that the more education you have, the more opportunities and access to resources you have (Radford & Howell, 2014).  Students who are classified as low-income are put at a set back compared to other students who come from higher income families because of the many and diverse resources they lack.  Those who do graduate and attend college, often undermatch which decreases their chance of even earning a college degree, keeping them in the cycle of low SES and the implications that come with that.  Not only does economic status affect students from enrolling in schools, but so does one’s family history of education.

Race

While race and ethnicity are not significant factors in the college admissions process, as the use of race in admissions has been banned in many university systems (Pitre,  P., 2006), the lack of information provided to minority students regarding college admissions affects their ability to be admitted to their top choice for colleges (Freeman,, K., 1997; Danielson, A., & Sander, R., 2014).  Most universities do not admit students based off their race, but rather, through a “race-neutral” system that focuses on underrepresented minorities (Danielson, A. & Sander, R., 2014 ).  The minority students applying to these school lack information about the criteria needed to be admitted to college, what would make them desirable to colleges, and are severely lacking in knowledge about the college application process as a whole (Pitre, 2006; Rios-Aguilar, & Marquez Kiyama, 2012; Walpole, 2003). The lack of information provided to minority students from their high-school affects the students standardized test scores as well.
        As an example, African-American students have higher aspirations than their white peers to attend college (Pitre, 2006), but despite this desire to attend college, black students make up only nine percent of college student enrollment (Danielson & Sander,  2014). Compared to non-minority applicants, African-American and Latino students are less likely to be admitted to their first-choice of college (McDonough, Antonio & Trent, 1997) and are more likely to be disadvantaged throughout the college admissions process (Walpole et al., 2005; Rios-Aguilar,  & Marquez Kiyama, 2012; Alberto, et al., 2009; Roderick, Coca & Nagaoka, 2011). Collectively, research has proven that minority and underrepresented students are often disadvantaged from high school and onward as they try and apply to colleges and universities.
        The median SAT scores of African-American students is typically two-hundred points below the scores of non-minority students (Danielson & Sander, 2014). Affirmative action, often regarded to as “positive discrimination”, allows for race and ethnicity to be taken into account as SAT scores are reviewed (Walpole, McDonough, Bauer, Gibson, Kamau & Toliver, 2005). Affirmative action does not offset the cost, intimidation and general lack of knowledge about the test lead to poor, less-competitive test scores (Walpole et al., 2005;Rios-Aguilar, & Marquez Kiyama, 2012; Danielson & Sander, 2014). Affirmative action, while meant to be an advantage to “rectify a long-standing neglect of disadvantaged populations” (Danielson, &  Sander, 2014, p. 974), does still not provide the adequate knowledge needed to succeed in college. A lack of preparation and desire from schools to “satisfy a diversity constraint” (Danielson & Sander,  2014) they are less likely to be able to adjust as they transition from high school because of the lack of preparation (Pitre, 2006; Roderick, Coca & Nagaoka, 2011).
        In addition to lacking in preparation for college, minority students also lack in cultural capital, which is  defined as familiarity with culture in a society, especially in regards to language (Sullivan, 2011). Cultural capital can range from academic support to total orientation towards schooling, is critical for success beyond high school (Rios-Aguilar & Marquez Kiyama, 2012). Research has found that there is a lack of guidance given to minority and underrepresented students resulting in misinformation about the true cost of college, a smaller network of people for support, and less competitive test scores (Cabrera,  Deil-Amen, Prabhu, Terenzini,  Lee & Franklin Jr., 2009; Walpole, 2003; Roderick, Coca, & Nagaoka, 2011; Rios-Aguilar & Marquez Kiyama, 2012). It is estimated that students can overestimate the total cost of college from two to ten times the total cost, as reported by Walpole (2003). As a result, they believe that they should not apply due to the inability to afford the estimated cost (Walpole, 2003).

First Generation College Students

Students whose parents attain a higher education are more likely to do the same (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014; Peter & David, 2008; Petty, 2014; Stebleton & Soria, 2013; Unverferth, Talbert-Johnson, & Bogard, 2012). There are many barriers to becoming a first-generation college student and many barriers specific to first generation college students while they are in college. Twenty-four percent of students in college are first-generation students (Unverferth, et al., 2012), but 43% of those students end up dropping out (Petty, 2014). Non-first generation students are four times more likely to stay in college than their first-generation counterparts because first generation students are more likely to face barriers like job and family responsibilities, weaker English skills, and overwhelming stress (Stebleton & Soria, 2013).

Parental educational attainment directly correlates with their child’s educational attainment (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014; Peter & David, 2008; Petty, 2014; Stebleton & Soria, 2013; Unverferth, et al., 2012). It takes a lot to become the first one in a family to go to college, but Blackwell and Pinder (2014) found that first generation college students have some common characteristics, including a love of reading at an early age, being considered different from their siblings and family, and wanting a better life for themselves.  These three commonalities were often encouraged by great educators and supportive families. The great educators had characteristics like coming to class with enthusiasm and encouragement, and taking time to teach each student basic skills like reading, writing, and math. The families made sacrifices like driving extra miles to take their child to a good school district, encouraging their child throughout their educational process, and instilling a strong work ethic (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014).

The transition to college is a challenge for every kind of student, but according to the literature, first-generation college students are more likely to face barriers that traditional students do not while in college (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014; Peter & David, 2008; Petty, 2014; Stebleton & Soria, 2013; Unverferth, et al., 2012). For instance, they are more likely to have to work a job in order to financially support themselves and often their family. Having to work one or even two jobs while managing the adjustment to college and work-load brings a large stressor into their college experience, can lead to stress issues, and even cause them to dropout (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014; Peter & David, 2008; Petty, 2014; Stebleton & Soria, 2013; Unverferth, et al., 2012). First generation students also have weaker academic and studying skills due to a lack of family involvement and support in their education (Stebleton & Soria, 2013; Winograd & Rust, 2014). With these stressors and more, first-generation students often withdraw from social situations, do not get involved on campus, and feel isolated (Dennis, Phinney, & Chuateco, 2005; Stebleton & Soria, 2013; Unverferth, et al., 2012; Winograd & Rust, 2014)

While first generation college students do face many barriers, there are common findings between studies on how to benefit them in college despite not knowing what to expect. First-generation students need extra help through the form of an academic advisor, mentor, tutor, or peer group in their transition to college (Peter & David, 2008; Stebleton & Soria, 2013; Unverferth, et al., 2012; Winograd & Rust, 2014). They are more likely to succeed when they feel involved on campus and socially engaged (Dennis, et al., 2005; Stebleton & Soria, 2013; Unverferth et al., 2012; Winograd & Rust, 2014). They need to be made aware of campus services, especially mental health services as they are often faced with depression and extreme stress (Blackwell & Pinder, 2014; Stebleton & Soria, 2013). These support systems help first generation college students feel more involved, responsible, and help them succeed more in college.

Strategies for Success

High school students can face barriers when applying to colleges for numerous different reasons. Some of the most common barriers that exploration has examines include low socioeconomic status (Bastedo et al., 2014; Black et al., 2015; Blackwell et al., 2014 Bourdieu, 2001; Fosnacht, 2014; Radford et al., 2014); racial ethnic minorities (Black et al., 2015; Danielson et al., 2014; Perna et al., 2016; Rios-Aguilar et al., 2012; Roderick et al., 2011; Walpole, 2003); and first-generation college students (Blackwell et al., 2014; Peter et al., 2008; Petty, 2014; Stebleton et al., 2013; Unverferth et al., 2012). The body of literature consistently shows that amidst the barriers that students face when applying to colleges, there are different strategies for success that can protect against the negative barrier that would put students at a disadvantage when applying to colleges and working towards receiving admission (Blackwell et al., 2014; Cabrera, Deil-Amen, Prabhu, Terenzini, Lee, & Franklin, 2009; Danielson et al., 2014; Perna et al., 2016; Rios-Aguilar et al., 2012; Roderick et al., 2011; Walpole, 2003). It is important to understand and inform high school students looking to attend college of these strategies to improve acceptance rates so that college acceptance can be more equitable when looking at and deciding which applicants to accept into the colleges and universities.

Consistently, research shows that programs that include mentors to high school students seeking admission to colleges have better rates of acceptance to colleges (Cabrera et al., 2009; Rios-Aguilar et al., 2012). Through the use of a mentor, the high school student has access to training and coaching through practicing important skills that are readily used throughout college application processes (Cabrera et al., 2009). Mentorship programs help for high school student to stay on track with a goal of college acceptance and enrollment as the end outcome (Cabrera et al., 2009). Large portions of compositions, have similarly shown the positive effects of both informal and formal social connections on high school students navigating through the application process (Rios-Aguilar et al., 2012).

Another strategy supported through research is the relationship of reading and the increase in the college application process (Blackwell et al., 2014; Cabrera et al., 2009). Reading furthers individual’s vocabulary which is beneficial on essay and descriptive parts of the college application process (Blackwell et al., 2014). Increased cognitive skills develops as individuals read at or slightly above ones reading level. While benefits of reading can come from an array of types of literature, such as fiction, nonfiction, and informational, benefits are less likely to occur when individuals read below one’s cognitive ability. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development refers to the idea that individuals learn and develop at higher rates when in a zone that challenges one to think critically with some help from an individual more advanced (Harland, 2003). Growth of the individual is less prominent when the individual can complete a task without help or when the individual has almost complete reliance on others to complete the task. The zone of proximal development applies to reading in the way that individuals are less likely to receive the benefits of reading on college applications if the reading comes from books that are not challenging enough or too challenging cognitively (Blackwell et al., 2014).

Some bodies of research exhibit motivation and desire to further one’s education by attending college as a factor in improving college acceptance (Blackwell et al., 2014). Other bodies of research present information that states the contrary of student’s motivation not having significance in applying and receiving acceptance and enrollment in college (Roderick et al., 2011). Rather, school preparation and structures are the factors that aid to translate student’s motivation into systems of success in college application process for high school students (Roderick et al., 2011).

Conclusion

The information presented throughout the literature is important because preparation and knowledge affect standardized tests that are used for college acceptance, such as the ACT and SAT, which in turn affect admission to college (Perna et al., 2016; Petty, 2014; Roderick et al., 2011; Unverferth et al., 2012). Being aware of these barriers and taking the time to learn how to access resources that have the potential to aid in cognitive abilities and financial support can play an integral role into high school students acceptance to college and enrollment in courses (Blackwell et al., 2014; Cabrera et al., 2009; Danielson et al., 2014; Perna et al., 2016; Rios-Aguilar et al., 2012). Information does not solve the large societal issues of these barriers but can provided awareness and preparation to not only aid in the individual's awareness of hurdles high school students face in preparing for colleges, but also to aid in understanding of why college preparation and exploring colleges are beneficial to student’s success. Providing the strategies for success such as getting involved in mentoring programs, using social connections, and reading to further one’s vocabulary and cognitive skills serve as factors to boost college enrollment.

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