B2_39_Grammar
USING VERBS OF PERCEPTION
(a) I saw my friend run down the street. (b) I saw my friend running down the street. (c) I heard the rainfall on the roof. (d) I heard the rain falling on the roof. | Certain verbs of perception are followed by either the simple form* or the -ing form** of a verb. There is often little difference in meaning between the two forms, except that the -ing form usually gives the idea of "while." In (b): I saw my friend while she was running down the street. |
(e) When I walked into the apartment, I heard my roommate singing in the shower. (f) I heard a famous opera star sing at the concert last night. | Sometimes (not always) there is a clear difference between using the simple form or the -ing form. The use of the -ing form gives the idea that an activity is already in progress when it is perceived, as in (e):The singing was in progress when I first heard it. In (f): I heard the singing from beginning to end. It was not in progress when I first heard it. |
VERBS OF PERCEPTION FOLLOWED BY THE SIMPLE FORM OR THE +ING FORM
see look at hear feel
smell notice watch observe
listen to
*The simple form of a verb = the infinitive form without "to."
INCORRECT: I saw my friend to run down the street.
**The -ing form refers to the present participle.
So and Neither
You can use these words in short responses if you agree with someone.
If you hear a negative sentence you can agree by using neither.
If you hear a positive sentence you can agree by using so.
Remember that the verb in your response needs to agree with the verb in the sentence you hear and you must invert the verb and the subject like a question form.
I am tired.
So am I.
I have to be up tomorrow at the crack of dawn.
So do I.
I’m not tired.
Neither am I.
I’ve never been to the Caribbean.
Neither have I.
EXERCISE 1.
Choose the correct response.
1 - I don't like mushrooms.
a. So do I.
b. Neither don't I.
c. Neither do I.
2 - I love going to the cinema.
a. So do I.
b. I can.
c. So am I.
3 - I can't swim.
a. I can.
b. Neither can I.
c. Neither do I.
4 - I haven't got a dog
a. So have I.
b. I have.
c. Neither have I.
5 - I enjoyed the concert.
a. Neither did I.
b. So did I.
c. So have I.
6 - I want to go shopping.
a. So do I.
b. I am.
c. So have I.
7 - I'm really tired.
a. So have I.
b. So did I.
c. So am I.
8 - I don't agree.
a. Neither do I.
b. Neither did I.
c. So do I.
9 - I wish it was Saturday!
a. So can I.
b. So do I.
c. Neither do I.
10 - I've got 3 sisters.
a. So have I
b. Neither have I
c. So am I
NOUN CLAUSES BEGINNING WITH THAT
STATEMENT He is a good actor. The world is round. | NOUN CLAUSE (a) I think that he is a good actor. (b) I think he is a good actor. (c) We know (that) the world is round. |
In (a): that he is a good actor is a noun clause. It is used as the object of the verb think. The word that, when it introduces a noun clause, has no meaning in itself. It simply marks the beginning of the clause. Frequently it is omitted, as in (b), especially in speaking. (If used in speaking, it is unstressed.) | |
She doesn't understand spoken English. The world is round. | (d) That she doesn't understand spoken English is obvious. (e) It is obvious (that) she doesn't understand spoken English. (f) That the world is round is a fact. (g) It is a fact that the world is round. |
In (d): The noun clause (That she doesn't understand spoken English) is the subject of the sentence. The word that is not omitted when it introduces a noun clause used as the subject of a sentence, as in (d) and (f). More commonly, the word it functions as the subject and the noun clause is placed at the end of the sentence, as in (e) and (g). | |
EXERCISE 2.
Noun clauses beginning with THAT. Directions: Change the given sentence into a noun clause using the expression in parenthesis. First use it + the expression then make an equivalent sentence by using a that-clause as the subject.
Example: The world is round.
ANSWER: It is a fact that the world is round. / That the world is round is a fact.
1. Tim hasn't been able to make any friends. (a pity)
2. Drug abuse can ruin one's health. (a well-known fact)
3. Some women do not earn equal pay for equal work. (unfair)
4. The earth revolves around the sun. (true)
5. Irene, who is an excellent student, failed her entrance examination. (surprising)
6. Smoking can cause cancer. (apparent)
7. English is the principal language for business throughout much of the world. (a fact)
EXERCISE 3.
Noun clauses beginning with THAT. Directions: A that-clause is frequently used with the fact. Combine the sentences using "the fact that" to introduce a noun clause.
Example:
1. Ann was late. That didn't surprise me.
--> The fact that Ann was late didn't surprise me.
2. Rosa didn't come. That made me angry.
3. I'm a little tired. I feel fine except for that.
4. Natasha didn't pass the entrance examination. She was not admitted to the university
due to that.
5. Many people in the world live in intolerable poverty. That must concern all of us.
6. Surasuk is frequently absent from class. That indicates his lack of interest in school.
Cleft Sentences
We use cleft sentences, especially in speaking, to connect what is already understood to what is new to the listener. In a cleft sentence, a single message is divided (cleft) into two clauses. This allows us to focus on the new information.
It-cleft sentences
It-clauses are the most common type of cleft clause. The information that comes after it is emphasised for the listener. The clause which follows the it-clause is connected using that and it contains information that is already understood. We often omit that in informal situations when it is the object of the verb:
A: So Tom was raging angry yesterday, was he?
B:No. It was Bob that was raging angry!
Focus (new information): it was Bob (not Tom)
Understood already (old information): someone was angry
A: You’ve met my mother, haven’t you?
B: No, it was your sister (that) I met!
Focus (new information): it was your sister (not your mother)
Understood already (old information): I met someone in your family
Is it August that you are going on holiday?
Focus (new information): the month August?
Understood already (old information): you are going on holiday
When a personal subject is the focus, we can use who instead of that. We often omit who in informal situations when it is the object of the verb:
It was my husband who (or that) you spoke to on the phone. (or It was my husband you spoke to on the phone.)
When a plural subject is the focus, we use a plural verb but It + be remains singular:
It’s the parents who were protesting most.
We can use negative structures in the it-clause:
It wasn’t the Greek student who phoned.
(a) It is difficult to learn a second language. | Often an infinitive phrase is used with it as the subject of a sentence. The word it refers to and has the same meaning as the infinitive phrase at the end of the sentence. In (a): It = to learn a second language. |
(b) Learning a second language is difficult. | A gerund phrase is frequently used as the subject of a sentence, as in (b). |
(c) To learn a second language is difficult. | An infinitive can also be used as the subject of a sentence, as in (c), but far more commonly an infinitive phrase is used with it, as in (a). |
(d) It is easy for young children to learn a second language. Learning a second language is easy for young children. To learn a second language is easy for young children. | The phrase for (someone) may be used to specify exactly who the speaker is talking about, as in (d). |
EXERCISE 4.
IT + infinitive. Directions: Create sentences beginning with it. Use the given expression in the first part of the sentence followed by the infinitive phrase.
Example:
1. dangerous + ride a motorcycle without wearing a helmet
ANSWER: It's dangerous to ride a motorcycle without wearing a helmet.
2. important + look both ways before crossing a busy street
3. (not) easy + earn a foreign language
4. foolish + dive into water before checking its depth
5. must be interesting + be a foreign correspondent
6. always a pleasure + see you
7. clever of you + buy Microsoft stock when it was low
8. not cost much money + go camping
9. necessary + have a visa before you can travel to certain countries
10. take time + learn how to play a musical instrument
EXERCISE 5.
IT + infinitive. Directions: Add (for + someone) and the other words to give a more specific and accurate meaning to the sentences.
Example:
1. It isn't possible to be on time. (for me + if the bus drivers are on strike)
ANSWER: It isn't possible for me to be on time for class if the bus drivers are on strike.
2. It's easy to speak Spanish. (Maria + because it’s her native language)
3. It's important to learn English. (for Sasha + because he wants to attend an American university)
4. It is essential to get a visa. (for someone + if they want to visit Russia)
5. It's important to take advanced math courses. (for engineering students + if they want to work)
6. It's difficult to communicate. (for me + with Mr. Wang)
7. It was impossible to come to class. (for Abdul + because he is in the hospital)
8. It is a good idea to study gerunds and infinitives. (for us + because they are very common forms)
EXERCISE 6.
IT + infinitive; gerunds as subjects. Complete two sentences. The first should be with an infinitive phrase and the second, which has the same meaning, with a gerund phrase as the subject.
Example:
It's fun + ride a horse
ANSWER: It's fun to ride a horse. / Riding a horse is fun.
1. It's dangerous + climb a mountain
2. It's easy + ride a bike
3. It's impolite + interrupt someone
4. It is important + keep the peace
5. It is wrong + drive through a stop sign
6. It takes a lot of time + do a job well
7. It's a good idea + park your car safely
8. Is it difficult + learn a foreign language ?
INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE: IN ORDER TO
(a) He came here in order to study English. (b) He came here to study English. | In order to is used to express purpose. It answers the question "Why?" In order is often omitted, as in (b). |
(c) INCORRECT: He came here for studying English. (d) INCORRECT: He came here for to study English. (e) INCORRECT: He came here for study English. | To express purpose, use (in order) to, not for, with a verb.* |
(f) I went to the store for some bread. (g) I went to the store to buy some bread. | For can be used to express purpose, but it is a preposition and is followed by a noun object, as in (f). |
'Exception: The phrase be used for expresses the typical or general purpose of a thing. In this case, the preposition for is followed by a gerund: A saw is used for cutting wood. Also possible: A saw is used to cut wood.
However, to talk about a particular thing and a particular situation, be used + an infinitive is used: A chain saw was used to cut (NOT for cutting) down the old oak tree.
EXERCISE 7.
IN ORDER TO vs. FOR. Directions: Use the given completions to express the purpose of the action. Each sentence will have either a or b as the answer.
Examples:
a. a business trip
b. visit my brother
1. I went to Chicago to __visit my brother__..
2. Tom went to Chicago for __a business trip___ .
a. (some) bread and coffee.
b. buy (some) groceries.
3. I went to the market for ______.
4. Mary went to the market to ______.
a. a checkup.
b. have my annual checkup.
5. I went to the doctor to ______.
6. My son went to the doctor for ______.
a. stay in (good physical) shape.
b. exercise and recreation.
7. I swim every day to ______.
8. My friend swims every day for ______.
a. (some) gas/petrol.
b. get (some) gas/petrol.
9. I drove into the service station to ______.
10. They stopped at the service station for ______.
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE 1.
1. c 2. a 3. b 4. c 5. b 6. a 7. c 8. a 9. b 10. a
EXERCISE 2.
1. It is a pity that Tim hasn’t been able to make any friends. / That Tim hasn’t been able to make any friends is a pity. 2. It is a well-known fact that drug abuse can ruin one’s health. / That drug abuse can ruin one’s health is a well-known fact. 3. It is unfair that some women do not earn equal pay for equal work. That some women do not earn equal pay for equal work is unfair. 4. It is true that the earth revolves around the sun. That the earth revolves around the sun is true. 5. It is surprising that Irene, who is an excellent student, failed her entrance examination. That Irene, who is an excellent student, failed her entrance examination is surprising. 6. It is apparent that smoking can cause cancer. That smoking can cause cancer is apparent. 7. It is a fact that English is the principal language for business throughout much of the world. That English is the principal language for business throughout much of the world is a fact.
EXERCISE 3.
2. The fact that Rosa didn’t come made me angry. 3. I feel fine except for the fact that I’m a little tired. 4. Natasha was not admitted to the university due to the fact that she didn’t pass the entrance examination. 5. The fact that many people in the world live in intolerable poverty must concern all of us. 6. The fact that Surasuk is frequently absent from class indicates his lack of interest in school.
EXERCISE 4.
2. It’s important to look both ways before crossing a busy street. 3. It’s not easy to learn a foreign language. 4. It’s foolish to dive into water before checking its depth. 5. It must be interesting to be a foreign correspondent. 6. It’s always a pleasure to see you. 7. It was clever of you to buy Microsoft stock when it was low. 8. It doesn’t cost much money to go camping. 9. It’s necessary to have a visa before you can travel to certain countries. 10. It takes time to learn how to play a musical instrument.
EXERCISE 5.
2. It’s easy for Maria to speak Spanish because it’s her native language. 3. It’s important for Sasha to learn English because he wants to attend an American university. 4. It’s essential for someone to get a visa if they want to visit Russia. 5. It’s important for engineering students to take advanced math courses if they want to work. 6. It’s difficult for me to communicate with Mr. Wang. 7. It is impossible for Abdul to come to class because he is in the hospital. 8. It’s a good idea for us to study gerunds and infinitives because they are very common forms.
EXERCISE 6.
1. It’s dangerous to climb a mountain. Mountain climbing is dangerous. 2. It’s easy to ride a bike. Riding a bike is easy. 3. It’s impolite to interrupt someone. Interrupting someone is impolite. 4. It is important to keep the peace. Keeping the peace is important. 5. It is wrong to drive through a stop sign. Driving through a stop sign is wrong. 6. It takes a lot of time to do a job well. Doing a job well takes a lot of time. 7. It’s a good idea to park your car safely. Parking your car safely. 8. Is it difficult to learn a foreign language? Is learning a foreign language difficult?
EXERCISE 7.
3. a 4. b 5. b 6. a 7. a 8. b 9. b 10. a