6.3.4.6 Topic: Coordination

🎯 Learning Objectives

By the end of this topic, learners should be able to:

• List types of neurones and nervous system diseases
  
• Define reflex action, reflex arc, and conditioned reflex
  
• Give examples of reflex actions
  
• Describe how nerve impulses are transmitted
  
• Explain reflex arc parts, conditioned reflexes, and related experiments
  
• Discuss how diseases affect the nervous system
  
• Explain functions and structures of neurones and CNS
  
• Draw and label parts of neurones, CNS, and reflex arcs
  

🧠 A. Key Lists

Types of Neurones

• Sensory neurones – carry messages from sense organs to the CNS
  
• Relay (interneurones) – connect sensory and motor neurones inside the spinal cord
  
• Motor neurones – carry messages from CNS to muscles or glands
  

Diseases of the Nervous System

• Epilepsy – brain disorder causing seizures
  
• Meningitis – infection of the brain/spinal cord membranes
  
• Polio (Poliomyelitis) – viral disease causing paralysis
  
• Parkinson’s disease – affects body movement and coordination
  

📘 B. Definitions

• Reflex Action – an automatic and quick response to a stimulus
  
• Reflex Arc – the nerve pathway followed during a reflex action
  
• Conditioned Reflex – a learned response due to repeated training (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs)
  

🔁 C. Examples of Reflex Actions

• Blinking when dust enters the eye
  
• Pulling hand away from a hot surface
  
• Knee-jerk reaction when tapped below the knee
  
• Sneezing in response to dust
  
• Coughing when food goes the wrong way
  

📖 D. Descriptions

How Nerve Impulses Are Transmitted

• Impulses are electrical messages sent through neurones
  
• Travel from receptors → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor neurone → effector
  
• Myelin sheath helps speed up the message
  

Simple Reflex Action Experiment

• Ruler Drop Test
  

• One learner holds out hand
  
• Another drops a ruler without warning
  
• The catching time shows reaction speed
  

Parts of a Reflex Arc

• Stimulus – e.g., hot object
  
• Receptor – detects the stimulus
  
• Sensory neurone – carries message to spinal cord
  
• Relay neurone – connects inside spinal cord
  
• Motor neurone – sends message to effector
  
• Effector – e.g., muscle that reacts
  

How Conditioned Reflexes Occur

• Happen after repeated experiences
  
• Brain connects a new stimulus with a known response
  
• Example: salivating after hearing a bell due to previous food pairing
  

Experiments for Reflexes in Coordination

• Ruler test for reaction speed
  
• Blink test – wave hand quickly near eye and observe blinking
  
• Sound reaction test – clap hands and check how fast someone reacts
  

How Diseases Affect the Nervous System

• Neurone damage slows or blocks signals
  
• Results in:
  

• Poor coordination
  
• Delayed reactions
  
• Muscle weakness or paralysis
  
• Seizures (epilepsy)
  

🧬 E. Explanations

Functions of Neurone Types

• Sensory neurone – detects and sends signals to the CNS
  
• Relay neurone – processes signals within the spinal cord
  
• Motor neurone – sends signals from CNS to muscles/glands

Functions of Neurone Parts

• Dendrites – receive signals
  
• Cell body – controls cell activities
  
• Axon – carries impulses away from the cell body
  
• Myelin sheath – insulates and speeds up signal
  
• Axon terminals – pass message to next cell or muscle
  

Brain vs Spinal Cord (Structure & Function)

Functions of Central Nervous System (CNS)

• Brain – controls thoughts, emotions, learning
  
• Spinal cord – handles reflexes, connects brain with body
  
• CNS overall – receives messages, makes decisions, sends out commands

Importance of Reflex Actions

• Protect the body from danger
  
• Happen very fast
  
• Do not need thinking (automatic)
  
• Help survival
  

✏️ F. Draw and Label

1. Parts of a Neurone

Include:

• Dendrites
  
• Cell body (soma)
  
• Axon
  
• Myelin sheath
  
• Axon terminals
  

2. Central Nervous System

Draw and label:

• Brain parts: cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata
  
• Spinal cord
  

3. Reflex Arcs

Diagram should show:

• Stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor neurone → effector → response
  

✅ Quick Summary Checklist

✔ Neurones: sensory, relay, motor
✔ Diseases: epilepsy, meningitis, polio, Parkinson's
✔ Reflex types: natural (blinking), conditioned (trained)
✔ Impulse path: receptor → effector
✔ CNS: brain + spinal cord – controls and coordinates
✔ Reflexes: fast, protective, automatic

6.3.4.7 Topic: Immunity

🎯 Learning Objectives

By the end of this topic, learners should be able to:

• List examples of organ transplants, types of blood groups, and transfusion factors
  
• Explain the importance of immunization and considerations before transplants and transfusions
  
• Describe blood group systems, HIV effects, vaccinations, and the lymphatic system’s role
  

🧾 A. Lists and Identification

✅ Examples of Organ Transplants

Organ transplants replace diseased or damaged organs with healthy ones from donors. Examples include:

• Kidney transplant – most common, for kidney failure
  
• Liver transplant – for severe liver diseases
  
• Heart transplant – for heart failure
  
• Lung transplant – for lung diseases (e.g., cystic fibrosis)
  
• Cornea transplant – to restore eyesight
  
• Bone marrow transplant – used in blood cancers like leukemia
  

✅ Types of Blood Groups

Blood groups are classified based on antigens found on red blood cells:

ABO System

• Group A – has A antigens and anti-B antibodies
  
• Group B – has B antigens and anti-A antibodies
  
• Group AB – has both A and B antigens, no antibodies (universal recipient)
  
• Group O – has no antigens, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies (universal donor)
  

Rhesus Factor (Rh)

• Rh-positive (Rh⁺) – has Rh antigen
  
• Rh-negative (Rh⁻) – lacks Rh antigen
  

✅ Factors to Consider Before Blood Transfusion

Before transfusion, doctors must ensure:

• Blood group compatibility (ABO & Rh systems)
  
• Cross-matching test – checks donor/recipient compatibility
  
• Screening for infections – e.g., HIV, Hepatitis B & C
  
• Donor health status – no diseases, healthy hemoglobin levels
  
• Recipient’s medical history – allergies or reactions to past transfusions
  

📘 B. Explanations

✅ Factors to Consider Before Organ Transplant

• Tissue and blood type matching – reduces rejection risk
  
• Organ size and age compatibility
  
• Recipient health status – strong enough to survive surgery
  
• Donor screening – ensures no infectious diseases
  
• Immunosuppressant needs – drugs to prevent organ rejection
  
• Urgency – critical condition may prioritize transplant
  

✅ Factors to Consider Before Blood Transfusion

• Correct blood group and Rh factor
  
• Absence of incompatible antibodies
  
• No allergic or immune reaction history
  
• Sterility and proper storage of blood
  
• Valid expiry date and volume of blood
  

✅ Importance of Immunization

• Prevents deadly diseases like measles, tetanus, TB, polio, COVID-19
  
• Boosts body immunity by training the immune system
  
• Reduces spread of contagious diseases (herd immunity)
  
• Protects children early before exposure to pathogens
  
• Saves lives and medical costs by preventing infections
  
• Eliminates some diseases (e.g., smallpox globally)
  

🧪 C. Descriptions

✅ Role of Lymphatic System in HIV Immune Response

• The lymphatic system defends the body using white blood cells
  
• HIV weakens immunity by targeting T-cells in the lymph nodes
  
• Infected T-cells can't fight germs, leading to opportunistic infections
  
• Lymph nodes may swell during active HIV infection
  
• HIV spreads through the lymphatic fluid, weakening body defense over time
  

✅ ABO and Rhesus Blood Groups

ABO System

• Important for blood transfusion compatibility
  
• Group O – universal donor (no antigens)
  
• Group AB – universal recipient (no antibodies)
  

Rhesus System

• Rh⁺ can receive both Rh⁺ and Rh⁻ blood
  
• Rh⁻ can only receive Rh⁻ blood
  
• Important in pregnancy to prevent Rh incompatibility (mother Rh⁻, baby Rh⁺)

✅ How Vaccination Works

• A vaccine contains weak or dead forms of germs
  
• It stimulates the immune system to make antibodies
  
• If the real germ attacks later, the body remembers and fights it faster
  
• Example: TB vaccine (BCG), Polio drops, COVID-19 vaccines
  
• Provides long-term protection (sometimes lifelong)

✅ Effects of HIV on Helper T-cells and Killer T-cells

• Helper T-cells (CD4):
  

• Direct the immune system
  
• HIV infects and destroys them
  
• Body becomes defenseless
  

• Killer T-cells:
  

• Kill infected cells
  
• Their function reduces as helper cells decrease
  
• Result: body can't fight simple infections
  

✅ Quick Summary Checklist

✔ Examples of organ transplants: kidney, liver, heart
✔ Blood groups: A, B, AB, O; Rh⁺ and Rh⁻
✔ Blood transfusion needs: matching, safety checks
✔ Organ transplant factors: compatibility, donor screening
✔ Immunization: protects and trains immune system
✔ ABO and Rh systems determine transfusion compatibility
✔ Lymphatic system defends against HIV
✔ Vaccines give long-term protection by memory cells
✔ HIV attacks helper T-cells, weakening immunity

6.3.4.8 Topic: Infectious and Non-Infectious Diseases

🎯 Learning Objectives

By the end of this topic, learners should be able to:

• Identify and give examples of infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and fungi
  
• Describe how diseases are spread and how cancer develops
  
• Define cancer and explain its effects on the human body
  
• State symptoms, risk factors, prevention, and control of diseases
  
• Describe the causes, types, and management of cancer
  

🦠 A. Stating Key Concepts

✅ Examples of Infectious Diseases

i. Caused by Bacteria

• Tuberculosis (TB) – affects lungs
  
• Cholera – causes severe diarrhea, dehydration
  
• Typhoid – causes fever, weakness, stomach pain
  
• Pneumonia – chest pain, coughing, difficulty breathing
  

ii. Caused by Viruses

• HIV/AIDS – weakens the immune system
  
• Influenza (Flu) – fever, sore throat, headache
  
• Measles – rash, fever, cough
  
• COVID-19 – cough, breathing difficulty, fever
  

iii. Caused by Fungi

• Athlete’s foot – affects feet, causes itching
  
• Ringworm – circular skin rash
  
• Candidiasis – affects mouth or genital areas
  
• Fungal nail infections – discolored, brittle nails
  

✅ Modes of Transmission of Infectious Diseases

Diseases spread from one person to another in various ways:

• Airborne transmission – through coughing/sneezing (e.g., TB, flu)
  
• Direct contact – through skin or wounds (e.g., ringworm, Ebola)
  
• Body fluids – through blood, saliva, or sexual contact (e.g., HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis B)
  
• Contaminated food/water – (e.g., cholera, typhoid)
  
• Insect vectors – carried by mosquitoes or flies (e.g., malaria, sleeping sickness)
  
• Animal bites – rabies from dogs
  

✅ Types of Cancer

Cancer is classified based on the body part or cell type affected:

• Lung cancer – affects lungs (mainly due to smoking)
  
• Breast cancer – mostly in women
  
• Cervical cancer – affects the cervix in females
  
• Prostate cancer – affects the prostate in men
  
• Leukemia – cancer of the blood/bone marrow
  
• Skin cancer – caused by too much sun exposure
  

✅ Effects of Cancerous Cells

• Grow uncontrollably and form lumps (tumors)
  
• Spread to other body parts (metastasis)
  
• Damage healthy tissues and organs
  
• Reduce the body's ability to function
  
• Cause weight loss, pain, and weakness
  
• Can lead to death if not treated
  

✅ Examples of Organs Commonly Affected by Cancer

• Lungs – lung cancer
  
• Breast – breast cancer
  
• Liver – liver cancer
  
• Cervix – cervical cancer
  
• Prostate – prostate cancer
  
• Skin – skin cancer
  
• Colon – colon cancer
  

📘 B. Definition

✅ Define: Cancer

Cancer is a disease caused by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. These cells can form tumors and invade other parts of the body, destroying healthy tissue.

💬 C. Explanation Section

✅ Signs and Symptoms of Infectious Diseases

• Fever
  
• Fatigue (body weakness)
  
• Coughing and sneezing
  
• Skin rashes
  
• Swollen lymph nodes
  
• Vomiting or diarrhea
  
• Pain in body parts (chest, stomach, joints)
  
• Loss of appetite or weight
  

✅ Factors that Increase the Risk of Cancer

• Smoking and tobacco use
  
• Excessive alcohol consumption
  
• Poor diet (high fat, low fiber)
  
• Lack of exercise
  
• Exposure to radiation or harmful chemicals
  
• Family history of cancer
  
• Infections like HPV (linked to cervical cancer)
  

✅ Ways of Preventing and Controlling Cancer

• Avoid smoking and alcohol
  
• Eat healthy foods (more fruits, vegetables, fiber)
  
• Regular physical activity
  
• Avoid direct sunlight exposure (use sunscreen)
  
• Early cancer screening and medical check-ups
  
• Vaccination against HPV and Hepatitis B
  
• Safe sexual practices to prevent infections
  
• Avoid contact with harmful chemicals
  

📝 D. Description Section

✅ Modes of Transmission of Infectious Diseases

(Already listed above in section A)

✅ Types of Cancer

(Already listed above in section A)

✅ Causes of Cancer

• Genetic mutations in cells
  
• Chemicals (e.g., pesticides, industrial toxins)
  
• Infections (HPV, Hepatitis B)
  
• Lifestyle choices (smoking, unhealthy diet)
  
• Radiation exposure
  
• Hormonal imbalances
  

✅ Management of Cancer

• Early detection – better chance of treatment
  
• Medical treatment methods:
  

• Surgery – to remove tumors
  
• Chemotherapy – using drugs to kill cancer cells
  
• Radiotherapy – using X-rays to destroy cancer cells
  

• Pain management – medication to relieve symptoms
  
• Healthy lifestyle – diet, rest, emotional support
  
• Palliative care – for advanced cases, to improve quality of life
  

✅ Quick Study Checklist

✔ Infectious diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, and fungi
✔ Cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal body cells
✔ Diseases are transmitted by air, contact, fluids, food, insects
✔ Cancer affects lungs, breast, cervix, liver, prostate, and more
✔ Warning signs: lumps, weight loss, pain, bleeding
✔ Cancer prevention: avoid smoking, eat healthy, exercise
✔ Cancer treatment: surgery, chemo, radiotherapy