Psychoeducational Evaluations of Blind and Low Vision Students

Webinar Description 

Have you ever wondered how school psychologists conduct evaluations of students with visual impairments? Should school psychologists administer tests with their TSVIs? What do TSVIs evaluate? Should school psychologists administer standardized tests to blind and low vision students? School psychologists may have minimal experience working with blind and low vision students and often have many questions when receiving an evaluation referral for a student with visual impairment. Join us to learn best practices for psychoeducational evaluations of blind and low vision students.

Learning Objectives 

• Visual impairments 101: Identify what you need to know about blindness and low vision as an educator.
• Delineate best practices for evaluating blind and low vision students.

California School for the Blind Assessment Center Team

Stephanie Herlich, M.A., TSVI/O&M

(sherlich@csb-cde.ca.gov)

May Nguyen, MS, LEP, NCSP

(mnguyen@csb-cde.ca.gov)

Shelby Zimmerman, MA, TSVI/COMS

(szimmerman@csb-cde.ca.gov)

Rebecka Henry, MS, CCC-SLP  

(rhenry@csb-cde.ca.gov)

Please use the following when citing this document.

Nguyen, M., Herlich, S., Zimmerman, S., & Henry, R. (2024). Psychoeducational evaluations of blind and low vision students [Webinar handout]. California School for the Blind. https://docs.google.com/document/d/e/2PACX-1vQVKavWNXJ9bBO8FtWo2GtbrhvDjNkzc1KYAKNya88gwDGelqPgOhLyxsbEs_ohBtFzmQKRs1mFfRhU/pub

Table of Contents

Previous Webinar Recording

Visual Impairment Introduction

VI Definitions

Visual Impairment Special Education Eligibility Criteria

Simulations

Impacts on Learning & Development

Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC)

Evaluations Best Practices Overview

Purpose of Evaluation

Evaluation Process

Collaborating Throughout the Process

General Suggestions for Interactions

Planning Prior to the Evaluation

RIOT/ICEL Approach to Evaluation

Standardized Assessment Administration Considerations

Testing Accommodations & Modifications

Non-Standardized Assessment

Interpreting Results

Social Emotional & Behavioral Evaluation Considerations

Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Considerations

Report Writing Considerations

Recommendations

Appendix A: FAQ

1. What tests can I use with a student who is blind or visually impaired?

Comprehension/Knowledge (Gc)

Crystalized Intelligence (Gc)

Fluid Reasoning (Gf)

Short-Term Memory (Gsm) - Memory Span (MS)

Short-Term Working Memory (Gwm)

Long-Term Retrieval (Glr)

Long-Term Retrieval (Glr) - Ideational Fluency (FI)

Auditory Processing (Ga)

Tests Available in Braille and/or Large Print

Alternative Ways to Look at Cognition - Tools Created or Adapted for Individuals with VI

Alternative Ways to Look at Cognition - Tools Not Adapted for Individuals with VI

2. Can I adapt any test into braille?

3. Can a student qualify under Visual Impairment and Specific Learning Disability?

4. Is a medical eye report (e.g., optometry or ophthalmology report) needed for special education eligibility under VI?

5. Should we use person-first versus identity-first language with the BVI community in our evaluation reports?

5. How can I find support when I have questions about an evaluation for a student with visual impairments?

6. Do students with convergence insufficiency qualify for special education services under the eligibility category of Visual Impairment? Do TSVIs provide vision therapy?

7. What are some red flags that I should be aware of to consider making a referral for a VI services evaluation?

8. Are TSVI and O&M goals aligned with the California Common Core State Standards?

9. Are there COVID-19 related evaluation considerations?

10. How are GATE (gifted and talented education) evaluations conducted for students who have visual impairments?

11. Who can administer standardized tests?

Appendix B: CVI Characteristics and Resources

CVI Resources

Appendix C: VI Plus Resources

Autism & VI Resources

Deafblind Resources

English Language Learners & VI Resources

Language Disorders & VI Resources

Learning Disabilities & VI Resources

Multiple Disabilities (ID & VI) Resources

Appendix D: Potential Recommendation Resources

Specific Eye Condition Related Recommendations

General Recommendations

Appendix E: Sample Evaluation Forms

Appendix F: California Codes Relevant to VI

California Education Code

California Code of Regulations

Appendix G: CSB Team Bios

Handout Key Points

• Consult with the vision specialists (TSVI and O&M) before, during, and after the evaluation. Collaboration is critical for a meaningful evaluation!
• Blind and low vision students exhibit a wide range of strengths and challenges.
• Look beyond the numbers for meaningful data! Use a multimethod, multiple-informant approach to the evaluation and gather data across settings (e.g., physical environments and social environments) and time. Utilizing a RIOT/ICEL assessment helps to ensure that multiple sources of information are analyzed during evaluation. Collecting meaningful data will lead to appropriate recommendations to support the student’s independence and competency.

Acknowledgments

• The outline of the presentation and handout are based on the amazing work of Betty Henry, Ph.D., who formerly served as the school psychologist for the CSB Assessment Center for over a decade. The information provided is expanding and updating her original work.

Previous Webinar and Workshop Recordings from the Assessment Center

• Psychoeducational Evaluations of Students With Visual Impairments 

• Date of webinar recording: 5/12/21
• Topics covered: VI 101, impacts on learning and development, evaluation process, and interpretation of results

• Essentials of Assessing Students with Visual Impairments for School Psychologists and SLPs 

• Date of workshop recording: 1/12/23
• Topics covered: Consultations for psychoeducational and speech-language evaluations, assessment preparation steps, best practices for evaluating students with visual impairments, list of tests and other assessment tools, and report tips.

• Essentials of Assessing Students with Visual Impairments for School Psychologists 

• Date of webinar recording: 1/26/24
• Topics covered: Consultation and preparation for evaluations, best practices for assessing students with visual impairments, and assessment tools and possible adaptations.

Visual Impairment 101 Overview

• Visual Impairment Introduction
• VI Definitions
• VI Special Education Eligibility Criteria
• Simulations
• Impacts on Learning & Development
• Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC)

Visual Impairment Introduction

• Best practices for evaluating students with VI include deepening your understanding of VI.
• There is as much variation within the population of individuals with vision impairment as between sighted individuals and those with visual impairment.
• Most individuals with VI have some functional vision.
• VI is a low-incidence disability. Other low-incidence disabilities include deaf, deafblind, and orthopedic impairment.

• CDC Fast Facts of Common Eye Disorders

• Approximately 6.8% of children younger than 18 years in the US have a diagnosed eye and vision condition.
• Nearly 3% of children younger than 18 years are blind or visually impaired.

• CVI has become a leading cause of visual impairment in children in developed countries and lower and middle-income nations (Vision loss in children whose eyesight may be 20/20 requires new diagnostic and teaching strategies - National Eye Institute, 2020).
• APH Annual Report Fiscal Year 2020

• 56,137 students in the US registered as BVI
• 5,471 students in CA registered as BVI 

• CDE Special Education Enrollment Statewide Report (12/1/18 reporting), 3,403 students were identified with VI of 795,047 students enrolled in special education, accounting for 0.4% of students served in special education in CA, which is similar to the percentage across the US (0.3% per the Children 3 to 21 years old served under Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Part B, by type of disability, National Center for Education Statistics, 2023).

Aspects of VI to Consider

Check out the YouTube video More Than Meets the Eye: Working With Students With Visual Impairments, which is designed to help educators who are new to the needs of students with visual impairments.

To gauge the impact of visual impairment on a particular student, consider the etiology, age of onset, prognosis, and functional use of vision.

Causes of Visual Impairment (can include more than one)

• Ocular visual impairment

• Sight problems caused by one or more parts of the eye structure and/or optic nerve not functioning properly (Martín et al., 2016)
• Examples: glaucoma, cataracts, aniridia, myopia, and colobomas

• Cerebral or cortical visual impairment

• Brain- or neurologically- based, impact on the brain’s ability to accurately interpret or process what the eyes see (National Eye Institute, 2020)
• Examples of CVI causes: asphyxia, neonatal encephalopathy, intraventricular hemorrhage, periventricular leukomalacia (white matter damage), chromosomal disorders, and trauma

• Individuals may have ocular VI, CVI, or both ocular VI and CVI

Databases for Etiologies of Vision Loss

The etiologies of visual impairment are wide-ranging and include (but are not limited to) the following: achromatopsia, albinism, aniridia, anophthalmia/microphthalmia, cataracts, congenital optic nerve anomalies, optic nerve atrophy, optic nerve hypoplasia, septo-optic dysplasia, cortical/cerebral visual impairment, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, juvenile macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, retinoblastoma, retinopathy of prematurity, and trauma (eye injury). Further information about these and other etiologies of vision loss can be found in the following databases.

• American Academy of Ophthalmology - EyeWiki 
• American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus - Eye Terms & Conditions
• National Center for Biotechnology Information Bookshelf - StatPearls 
• National Institutes of Health: Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center 
• National Eye Institute - Eye Conditions and Diseases 
• National Organization for Rare Disorders - List of Rare Diseases 

Age of Onset

• Congenital: present at birth

• A student who is blind from birth has a different understanding of the world than a sighted student.

• Adventitious: occurring after birth  

• A student who had sight until age 4 to 6 and later had vision loss will have a visual reference for basic cognitive and developmental concepts and may think about the world visually.
• If the student had some functional vision, the student may better understand visual concepts such as scale, space, depth, shadow, distance, and perspective.

Prognosis

• Stable or progressive/degenerative
• Consistent or fluctuating (can fluctuate hour-to-hour and/or day-to-day)

Vision Characteristics

• Visual Acuity - Clarity or sharpness of vision. Typical visual acuity is measured as 20/20. Someone with 20/20 vision can see clearly at 20 feet what should typically be seen at that distance. Someone with 20/200 vision must be as close as 20 feet to see what a person with normal vision can see at 200 feet (10x closer).
• Visual Field - Entire area that can be seen when the eyes are focused on a single point (think peripheral vision). Typical visual fields extend to 180 degrees.
• Contrast Sensitivity - Ability to distinguish shades of color from its foreground to its background
• Color Perception - Ability to accurately perceive color
• Stereopsis - Ability to use both eyes together. Aids in depth perception.

Presence of other disabilities (VI+)

Be attentive to the possibility of additional disabilities. Consider, as with any other student, that ongoing challenges can be due to additional disabilities rather than assume they are solely due to the visual impairment. Beyond the requirement to evaluate students in all areas of suspected disability, the purpose of exploring additional disabilities or needs is to fully understand what may be impacting progress to develop appropriate goals and programming. Frequently, the impacts of VI and additional disabilities have a confounding and compounding effect rather than a combination of the implications of each disability.

Focus on students’ presenting needs and implications for learning. A student is more than the scores achieved on a test or a diagnosis/eligibility category. For resources and guidance documents related to VI and additional needs (e.g., autism, deafblindness, English language learners, language disorders, learning disabilities, and intellectual disabilities), refer to Appendix C: VI Plus Resources. Remember that each student with complex needs requires a unique approach to evaluation and instruction.

VI Definitions

The 2014 Visual Impairment (VI) Guidelines - Standards and Guidelines (CDE) has a glossary that provides definitions to many terms related to visual impairment and education. California Education Code  Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, §56350-56354 addresses explicitly the Individualized Education Program for Visually Impaired Pupils. The following details focus on blindness, low vision, and brain or neurologically-based impairment.

Functionally Blind

• No usable vision.
• Functionally blind students rely primarily on senses other than vision as their major learning channel due to the severity of their visual impairment.
• “A ‘functionally blind pupil’ means a pupil who relies basically on senses other than vision as major channels for learning” (California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, Chapter 4, Article 3.5. Individualized Education Program for Visually Impaired Pupils, 56350).

Low Vision

• Low vision is a permanent and significant loss of visual function, including visual acuity and/or visual field. Low vision cannot be corrected with conventional glasses, contact lenses, surgery, or medication (CDE Low Vision Information).
• “Low vision is uncorrectable vision loss that interferes with daily activities. It is better defined in terms of function, rather than [numerical] test results” (Low Vision and Legal Blindness Terms and Descriptions, American Foundation for the Blind, n.d.).
• “A ‘pupil with low vision’ means a pupil who uses vision as a channel for learning, but who may also benefit from instruction in braille” (California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, Chapter 4, Article 3.5. Individualized Education Program for Visually Impaired Pupils, 56350).

Cerebral/Cortical Visual Impairment (CVI)

• CVI is "a leading cause of visual impairment in children in developed countries, as well as in lower and middle income nations, making it a growing global health concern" (DeMott, 2020, Hiding in plain sight section, para. 1). The range of impacts on functional vision is wide. It may be more noticeable in some situations or environments.
• Cerebral and cortical visual impairment indicate brain- or neurologically-based visual impairment. Cerebral and cortical visual impairment means that there's an impact on the brain’s ability to accurately interpret what the eyes see. Individuals may have CVI and ocular visual impairments (e.g., physical impairment to the eye).
• Cerebral vs. Cortical Visual Impairment

• Cerebral visual impairment describes a broad spectrum of “disordered vision or visual perception of any type or severity as a result of damage or disorder to the visual pathways or centers of the brain” (Dutton & Lueck, 2015, p. 9).
• Cortical visual impairment refers to a stricter set of criteria associated with medical and educational visual impairment related to brain damage to the visual cortex or cortical regions (Roman-Lantzy, 2018).

• Visual functioning fluctuates, and factors that likely cause this include:

• Change to an unfamiliar environment
• Weather
• Time of day
• Sensory overload
• Visual fatigue
• Illness or physical fatigue
• Emotional stress
• Glare
• A “poor vision” day

• CVI Evaluation: If a student exhibits unexplained vision difficulties, alert the team to consider whether a CVI evaluation would be appropriate (See Appendix B: CVI Characteristics and Resources for more detailed information).
• To learn more about CVI, take the free online CVI Self-Paced Online Course (CSB), which provides information about an introduction to CVI, causes of CVI, characteristics of CVI, CVI screening tools, CVI assessment, interviews, CVI Range, CVI Assessment Kit, and report writing. Class code: 265c263

Legally Blind

• Legal blindness is defined as visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye with best correction or a field of vision that is no greater than 20 degrees (Code of Federal Regulations § 404.1581).
• Legal blindness is more of a legal term than a functional or educational term that may be used by government or health organizations for eligibility for disability benefits, rehabilitation, vocational training, or other programs.

No Light Perception

• No light perception (NLP) means total blindness (i.e., no light and form perception) (Garg et al., 2022).
• “Only about 15% of people with eye disorders have total blindness, the majority of those with visual impairment have some level of vision” (Lee & Mesfin, 2022).

Visual Impairment Special Education Eligibility Criteria

• “Visual impairment including blindness means an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness” (California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1, Article 3.1, § 3030. Eligibility Criteria). Students do not need to be legally blind, which is more of a legal term than a functional or educational term. Students with low vision are included within the eligibility criteria. Low vision indicates a loss of vision that is uncorrectable.
• “For educational purposes…[t]he definition of students with visual impairments includes students with neurological visual impairments who are functionally blind or who have low vision, even with best correction. This qualifies them to receive services from a teacher of students with visual impairment” (CDE Visual Impairment Guidelines, 2014, p. 7). Students with cerebral or cortical visual impairment may qualify for special education if the impairment adversely affects their educational functioning, including academic performance, behavior, and social-emotional functioning.
• “A visual impairment does not include visual perceptual or visual motor dysfunction resulting solely from a learning disability; students who have visual perceptual or visual motor dysfunction resulting solely from a learning disability do not meet the eligibility criteria for ‘visual impairment’ or ‘low incidence disability’ and are therefore not eligible for vision services or low incidence funding for specialized support services, books, materials, and equipment available to a student with a low incidence disability” (Guidelines for Programs Serving Students With Visual Impairments 2014 Revised Edition, California Department of Education, 2014, p. 7).
• “A ‘visually impaired pupil’ means a pupil who is functionally blind or a pupil with low vision. For purposes of this article, a ‘visually impaired pupil’ does not include a pupil who is eligible for special education and related services based on a specific learning disability identified pursuant to Section 56338” (California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, Chapter 4, Article 3.5. Individualized Education Program for Visually Impaired Pupils, 56350).
• Although reviewing a recent ophthalmological or optometrist report is highly recommended and considered best practice for determining service delivery, federal and state eligibility regulations for special education do not require medical documentation. If a district states that it is mandatory, then the district is financially responsible. Please refer to OSEP 17-05 Policy Letter - Eligibility Determinations for Children Suspected of Having a Visual Impairment Including Blindness under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.

• “There is nothing in the IDEA or the Part B regulations that would prevent a public agency from obtaining a medical diagnosis prior to determining whether the child has a particular disability, and the educational needs of the child. Also, there is nothing in the IDEA or the Part B regulations that would prohibit a State from requiring that a medical diagnosis be obtained for purposes of determining whether a child has a particular disability, provided the medical diagnosis is obtained at public expense and at no cost to the parents, and is not used as the sole criterion for determining an appropriate educational program for the child. Further, if a State requires a medical diagnosis consistent with the above criteria, such a requirement exceeds the requirements of Part B of the IDEA. Under 34 CFR §300.199(a)(2), the State would be required to identify in writing to the LEAs located in the State, and to the Secretary, that such rule, regulation, or policy is a State-imposed requirement that is not required by Part B of the IDEA and Federal regulations”  (OSEP 17-05 Policy Letter - Eligibility Determinations for Children Suspected of Having a Visual Impairment Including Blindness under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Ryder, 2017, p. 4).

• Review Visual Impairment Eligibility Guidance (25-min YouTube video and and slides) from OSEP National TA Call on November 17, 2022, for more information about visual impairment eligibility. OSERS clarifies that states must not narrow the IDEA definitions.

• “Definitions and criteria for visual impairment, including blindness, must include any impairment in vision, regardless of significance or severity, that even with correction, impacts a child’s educational performance. Functional assessments should be conducted to determine how a child’s vision impairment impacts their educational performance” (OSERS, 2022, slide 4).

• Students with visual impairments may have additional challenges with learning that have manifested for reasons beyond or were not primarily caused by their visual impairment, including Specific Learning Disability and Intellectual Disability.

Simulations 

Although simulations do not show how a person with visual impairment sees precisely, they can provide sighted individuals an approximation of the impact on visual access.

• Simulated Images - Flowers

• These images (made with a beta version of SightSim software) give an approximate indication of how someone with the measured levels of vision shown sees when compared with someone with typical vision.

• Visual Fields - Where Are They? Activities to understand visual field
• Dorsal Stream Dysfunction Simulation (Beach Picnic) on Vimeo 

• Video of cerebral visual impairment video simulation with explanations from CVI Scotland

• Vision Disorders & Visual Impairment Simulation 

• Interactive online simulation of cataracts, glaucoma, macular degenerations, and floaters.

• VisionSim by Braille Institute 

• Braille Institute's VisionSim app for iPhone and iPad was developed to allow people with healthy vision to see the world through the eyes of a person experiencing one of nine degenerative eye diseases: age-related macular degeneration, cataracts, chronic open-angle glaucoma, corneal edema, diabetic retinopathy, homonymous hemianopia, macular degeneration, retinal detachment, retinitis pigmentosa.

• See through My Eyes | A Low Vision Simulation

• Video simulation of low vision, scotomas (partial loss of vision or blind spots in an otherwise normal visual field), and central field loss

Impacts on Learning & Development

Students with visual impairments need explicit instruction in many areas of learning as they cannot access their environment as can their typically developing peers.

Incidental Learning

• Incidental learning is learning through causal observation, which may be limited or unavailable for students with visual impairments (Barclay & Staples, 2011).
• There can be great differences in a child's understanding of the world if they are blind from birth or if they lose their vision later in life, as well as the degree of visual impairment.
• Sighted students learn much through observation and can learn about things that are occurring at a distance while blind students must substitute hands-on experience and explicit teaching for observation.
• A person cannot know what something is without prior sensory experience.
• Without incidental learning, opportunities are significantly reduced to stimulate curiosity and gain perspective.
• Vision is often the most efficient modality to gain information. Sighted individuals can quickly experience events, situations, and objects to understand how these individual pieces contribute to the environment as a whole.
• Processing information by auditory and/or tactile modalities is less efficient than processing information via vision. Tasks frequently take more time and effort for the educator to present appropriately and for the student to learn.
• Promote direct opportunities to experience the world to make meaningful connections and generalize learning.
• Visual impairments may result in delayed developmental milestones or achievement of developmental milestones in a different sequence than their peers.

Concept Development

• Understanding of concepts may be limited or fragmented even with access to tactile experiences (Barclay & Staples, 2011).
• Students with VI may focus on isolated parts of a whole. Knowledge can be like Swiss cheese without unifying experiences to bring understanding to the whole picture.
• The cause and age at onset of vision impairment will make a difference.
• Challenges with understanding scale, depth, shadow, perspective, and space may be present, especially if the etiology of VI is congenital or during the early developmental period.
• Students with visual impairments may present with concrete thinking and struggle with abstract thinking.
• Comprehension and significance of objects, concepts, and actions may be misinterpreted if not directly taught, impacting problem-solving.
• Direct teaching of object permanence and constancy, cause and effect, and symbolism are important for students with visual impairments. Motivation to explore the environment may be limited until object permanence is established.
• Students who are blind often start their educational path through rote memory alone. Encourage meaningful concept connections over rote knowledge.
• Concept Development with children with a severe visual impairment: This booklet from Visio includes a literature review on concept development. “Take, for example, the concept of swimming. A person swims with his body under water and his head above water. Fish swim entirely under water. Ducks swim, float basically, even though we call it swimming. A ship that floats, or a sinking ship, is not described as swimming” (de Kleijn & van den Bos, 2018, p. 10).

Motor Skill Development

• Students with VI may show limited curiosity and exploration due to the lack of information about their surroundings during early development.
• Reaching across the midline (right hand to left side) often needs to be encouraged.
• Students with VI are often less likely to participate in activities requiring basic gross motor skills (i.e., hop, jump, run, skip, kick, throw) if they have not had the same experience or practice as their sighted peers.
• “Some motor skill difficulties found in children with visual impairment include difficulties in gait acquisition and postural problems; changes in spatial orientation and temporal structuring; difficulty in coordinating perceptual information and its adjustment to external reality; problems in the perception of the surroundings; delay in the construction of the corporal scheme and in the acquisition of functional habits, such as dressing and eating” (Assessment of Motor Skills in Children With Visual Impairment: A Systematic and Integrative Review; Bakke et al., 2019, p. 1) 
• Although motor delays may be present in part due to lack of appropriate instruction or opportunity for practice, the potential of a student with visual impairment to move is the same as any student (Columna et al., 2016).
• Hands-on teaching methods must be used to teach motor skills.
• Gross Motor Development Curriculum for Children With Visual Impairments (Lieberman & Haibach, 2016) outlines teaching strategies, techniques, and equipment to use.

Social Skill Development

• Students with VI are at risk for social isolation or passivity (Sacks & Page, 2017).
• Early toddler development:

• Play (reduced pretend play, social play, symbolic play, turn-taking, problem-solving, etc.)
• Impacts of parental/caregiver interactions and attachment

• Challenges that may be experienced include:

• Understanding of turn-taking rules in play and conversation
• Sustaining conversation
• Recognizing the emotional intent of messages
• Finding the right time to comment or ask questions
• Reading the emotional tone in a room (facial expressions and body language)
• Initiating and maintaining peer interactions
• Being aware of distant objects and events
• Anticipating actions and events (especially touch)
• Integrating and generalizing information (e.g., perspective, trends, etc.)
• Staying active and connected with others
• Making inferences
• Responding appropriately to conflict

• Language differences and delays may impact social interactions.

• Children with VI may have a limited vocabulary.
• Language of blind and VI children tends to be “ego-centric” - meaning it centers around the child’s experiences, interests, and immediate surroundings.
• Responses in conversations may be tangential.

• Students with visual impairments often prefer to socialize and communicate with adults since they may interact with adults more frequently than children their age and adults are more willing to adapt conversations to the student’s interest. Provide opportunities for positive interactions with peers.
• Getting to Know You: A Social Skills and Ability Awareness Curriculum (Crow & Herlich, 2012) promotes understanding of how individuals with blindness or low vision develop social skills.

Language Development

• Being blind (especially from birth) may impact a variety of language skills and developmental processes including:

• Social Pragmatics
• Semantic language (the meaning of words)

• Hollow language
• Understanding parts of a whole
• Describing, comparing/contrasting
• Categories
• Abstract concepts and “far away words”
• Verbalism

• Expressive language

• Scripting, echolalia
• Egocentric vocabulary

• Language learned may be limited in conceptual understanding and of an egocentric (pertaining to the child only) nature (Loftin, 2022).
• Supporting Language Skills in a Child with a Visual Impairment [ChildVision] (2021) and  Communicating with your baby and child if they have a visual impairment [BBC] (Mathers, n.d.) give ideas for language development support.

Cognitive Processing

• Scores on verbal comprehension and knowledge tests that evaluate background information, particularly those involving intricate social conventions, might be impacted in children with severe visual impairment because of limited experiences (Bracher & Matta, 2017; Sattler & Evans, 2014).
• Carefully attend to differences in performance between comprehension based on recall and comprehension based on critical thinking (Loftin, 2022).
• Students with visual impairments may need extended time to process information.
• An incorrect or wonky response to a question provides a window of opportunity into the student’s thought process.
• A student with low vision may still be primarily a visual learner.

Executive Functioning Development

• Working memory involves storing and managing information in short-term memory to carry out complex tasks.

• Working memory is one of the most essential skills for anyone without visual support for learning.
• Students with VI rely heavily on their working memory and need encouragement to learn and use methods to support their working memory.

• Rote auditory memory skills may be superior to working memory. Rote memory of concepts may not reflect understanding.
• Supporting adults who may overly assist students and situational factors may lead to under-developed executive functioning skills, such as planning, organization, time management, initiation, attention, and flexible problem-solving.
• Challenges with problem-solving may include difficulty with

• Generalizing information to new situations.
• Perseveration on an issue instead of searching for a solution.
• Being passive in problem-solving (e.g., waiting for others to resolve the issue). There is a high risk for prompt dependency and learned helplessness.

• 19 Ways to Step Back is a helpful reference and reminder to foster the student’s independence.
• Executive function fact sheet and activity ideas (Perkins School for the Blind, 2021) has suggestions for developing these skills at home.

Sensory Processing

• Students with visual impairments may be sensitive to sound or touch. Tactile defensiveness is when an individual reacts adversely to touch.
• Hand-under-hand guidance is better than hand-over-hand prompting when physical guidance is needed.
• Stereotypic or self-stimulatory behaviors include eye pressing, rocking of the body or head, jumping, hand posturing, and flapping.

• These behaviors may be due to under- or over-sensory stimulation.
• “Stereotyped behaviors are most often seen in students who are cognitive impaired, those with neurological as well as visual impairments, and students who are stressed, bored, or overstimulated...The more severe the vision loss and the more severe the neurological impairment, the more pronounced the self-stimulatory behaviors tend to be” (Collaborative Assessment Working with Students who are Blind or Visually Impaired, Including Those with Additional Disabilities, Russo [of chapter 6], 2003, p. 159).

• Be conscious of the amount of sensory stimuli in the environment, especially with young children and children with CVI or multiple disabilities, as it can be difficult to focus on several stimuli simultaneously.
• Collaborate with OTs for strategies and support for sensory needs.
• Sensory exploration fact sheet and activity ideas (Perkins School for the Blind, 2021) describes various sensory activities.

Mental Health

• Adults who reported vision impairment were two to three times more likely to experience psychological distress compared to people without vision loss per findings from a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) study titled “Self-Reported Vision Impairment and Psychological Distress in U.S. Adults” (Lundeen et al., 2022). Additional details from the publicly available, de-identified data analyzed from 57,644 adults include the following.

• One out of four adults with vision loss reported experiencing anxiety or depression.
• Younger adults with vision loss had nearly five times the likelihood of experiencing significant anxiety or depression compared to adults who are 65 years old and older. This difference may be attributed to their coping or self-management skills needing further development.
• Individuals with vision loss should be screened for anxiety and depression.
• Potential interventions may include low vision rehabilitation to develop compensatory skills and cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety and depression.

• Students with visual impairment may struggle to adjust to their disability. They may need support to explore the intersectionality of their visual impairment, culture, gender orientation, sexual orientation, race, physical ability, and nationality to gain an integrated sense of identity.
• Children with visual impairments are at increased risk of experiencing mental health challenges when compared with their sighted peers (Augestad, 2017; Kúld et al., 2021; Sims et al., 2021).
• The lack or limited access to incidental learning contributes to the challenges students with visual impairments encounter in developing social, emotional, and communication skills. Daily activities such as accessing materials and negotiating social and physical environments may cause anxiety and stress.
• Elsman and colleagues (2019) indicated that students with visual impairments “require access to early intervention and low vision rehabilitation services, which aim to improve functioning in daily life and social participation, and possibly more general aspects of well-being such as quality of life and psychosocial functioning” (p. 513).
• Augestad (2017) found that “friendships, leisure-time activities, and independence in mobility seemed important to promote good mental health in all children” (p. 423).
• In “Psychological Impact of Vision Loss” (Boagey et al., 2022), researchers examined interview data and found that vision loss affects individuals’ mental health and sense of self. The study participants described stages of coping with their diagnosis leading to vision loss similar to stage theories of grief, such as Kübler-Ross’s model that includes denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance). This study found that individuals frequently experienced initial denial after diagnosis before eventually coming to acceptance after different lengths of time. Repeated intervention is likely needed as vision changes and people’s sense of identity and thought processes adjust. Boagey and colleagues (2022) highlight that “[a]ny mention of suicidal ideation should be taken very seriously, as sight loss has been linked to an increased risk of suicide” (p. 29) and that “[d]eveloping targeted psychosocial interventions keyed to the specific thoughts and feelings that commonly accompany vision loss may increase the success and acceptability of such interventions, as well as showing individuals that they are not alone in their thoughts” (p. 30).
• The personal adjustment to vision loss model proposed by Tuttle and Tuttle (2004) include the following:

• Trauma
• Shock and Denial
• Mourning and Withdrawal
• Succumbing and Depression
• Reassessment and Reaffirmation
• Coping and Mobilization
• Self-Acceptance and Self-Esteem

• Per “Coping With Stigmatization and Discrimination Related to Blindness and Low Vision” (Partow et al., 2021),

“Coping efforts might be tenuous and require cognitive and/or behavioral skills and psychological resources and as such, individuals experiencing stigma might benefit from interventions aimed at improving coping skills and resources, such as self-advocacy, assertion, or positive reinterpretation…This work provides insight for those clinicians and allied health professionals involved in the rehabilitation of persons who are blind or have low vision. These people should have access to group or individual counseling and psychotherapy designed to improve social skills, to assist them in focusing on their strengths and available resources, and to counter negative thoughts and behaviors, which might affect their functioning, goal attainment in their lives as well as their psychological well-being.” (p. 576)

• Visual Impairment and Mental Health Handout (Nguyen et al., 2024) includes information on the impact of visual impairment on development, current data on mental health outcomes, and practical strategies to support the mental health of youth with visual impairments.
• The National Research & Training Center on Blindness and Low Vision (NRTC) at Mississippi State University offers various free online courses. While these courses focus on older individuals, the concepts and strategies covered are relevant.

• Adjustment and Acceptance of Blindness and Low Vision: Course launched in 2020
• Vision Loss and the Role of the Family: Course launched in 2020

Additional Impacts

Sleep

• Sleep impacts many other areas of functioning including learning, memory, appetite, and mood.  
• Individuals with visual impairments often have sleep disturbances and disruption of circadian rhythms (e.g., day/night rhythm).
• “People with visual impairment have significantly more sleep problems as compared to the general population. In the general population, about 40% to 60% suffer from a variety of sleep related conditions. With young children, close to 90% to 100% of children with visual impairment suffer from sleep related conditions” (Good Sleep Strategies | Perkins eLearning, Bernstein, n.d.).  

Safety

• Physical safety: Due to physical concerns, students with visual impairments may be overprotected and not provided the dignity of risk. Being overprotected could lead to hesitancy in exploration and initiation and feelings of frustration or inadequacy.
• Routines provide a sense of predictability and safety. Providing regular opportunities to make choices allows for a sense of agency and control.

Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC)

Per 34 C.F.R. § 300.1, one of IDEA’s purposes is to “ensure that all children with disabilities have available to them a free appropriate public education that emphasizes special education and related services designed to meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and independent living” (Purposes, 2016). Hence, complete educational planning for students with VI must include access to common core educational content and direct, systematic instruction in the Expanded Core Curriculum (Brown et al., 2022).

“The ECC refers to a specialized curriculum for students who are blind or visually impaired…[that] address the differentiated needs these students require to access the [common core curriculum], function independently in life, and participate meaningfully in these activities” (CDE Visual Impairment (VI) Guidelines, 2014, p. 29). To receive appropriate and adequate services to address the ECC, services can be conducted before or after the school hours (California Education Code Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, § 56353).

Compensatory Access

• Critical skills that students need to access information and be successful in school
• Examples include communication (e.g., speaking, listening, and writing), literacy skills (e.g., reading and writing using braille, large print, or auditory means), concept development, organizational skills, and functional academics.
• Students who access materials in an adapted manner (braille, tactile graphics, and/or large print) typically require extended time for testing, assignments, and homework. Consult with the student’s TSVI for each student’s individual needs.

Social Interaction

• Skills to respond appropriately and participate actively in social situations
• Examples include turning toward others when speaking or being spoken to, using language to make a request, declining assistance, expressing a need, expressing emotion and affection appropriately, and participating appropriately in conversations in different situations.

Orientation & Mobility

• Skills to orient children who are visually impaired to their surroundings and travel skills to enable them to move safely and as independently as possible in the environment
• Examples include understanding of where you are in space, guide techniques (previously known as “human guide” or “sighted guide”), long white cane travel, street crossings, public transportation, and recognition of cues and landmarks.

Independent Living

• Skills needed to function independently in school, home, and the community
• Examples include personal grooming, time management, cooking, cleaning, clothing care, organization, and money management.

Recreation and Leisure

• Skills to ensure students’ enjoyment of physical and leisure activities
• Examples include making choices about how to spend leisure time, actively participating in physical and social recreational activities, and following rules in games and activities at an appropriate level.

Career Education

• Skills that enable students to move towards working as an adult
• Examples include exploring and expressing preferences about work roles, assuming work responsibilities at home and school, understanding concepts of reward for work, participating in job experiences, and learning about jobs and work roles at a developmentally appropriate level.
• “Only 44 percent of people who are blind or visually impaired are employed, compared with 79 percent of those without disabilities” (Reviewing the Disability Employment Research on People who are Blind or Visually Impaired: Key Takeaways, American Foundation for the Blind, para. 3). This disparity highlights the need to carefully prepare students with visual impairments for independence and transition into their postsecondary and/or vocational life.

Assistive Technology

• Skills to use devices, such as computers or other electronic equipment that make it easier to function effectively in school, at home, and in the workplace.
• Examples include video magnifiers with features for enlargement and adjusting contrast, magnification software, screen reader software, refreshable braille displays, optical character recognition software, speech-to-text and/or text-to-speech software, BrailleNote takers, and keyboarding.
• What’s Available in Assistive Technology for Students with Visual Impairments (California School for the Blind) is a live document with details about many types of assistive technology that is regularly updated.

Sensory Efficiency

• Skills that help students use the senses, including any functional vision, hearing, touch, smell, and taste
• Examples include the use of optical aids, augmentative and alternative communication devices, touch and vision to identify personal items, and sense of smell to know when nearing the school cafeteria.

Self-Determination

• Skills to enable students to become effective advocates for themselves based on their own needs and goals
• Examples include understanding one’s interests, values, and motivations and having a personal understanding of one’s abilities and limitations.

ECC Resources

To learn more about the ECC, check out the publication ECC Essentials: Teaching the Expanded Core Curriculum to Students with Visual Impairments (Allman, Lewis, Spungin [Eds.], 2014). ECC skill areas are divided by chapter, each authored by subject matter experts in the VI field.

Expanded Core Curriculum: An Educational and Legal Requirement (Brown et al., 2022) is a webinar providing additional ECC information.

Evaluations Best Practices Overview

• Purpose of Evaluation
• Evaluation Process

• Collaborating Throughout the Process
• General Suggestions for Interactions
• Planning Prior to the Evaluation
• RIOT/ICEL Approach to Evaluation
• Standardized Assessment Administration Considerations
• Interpreting Results
• Social Emotional & Behavioral Evaluation Considerations
• Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Considerations
• Report Writing Considerations
• Recommendations

Purpose of Evaluation

• Determine eligibility for service to improve access and progress educationally through an IEP or 504 Plan.

• There are differences in legal opinion on whether a 504 Plan versus IEP is appropriate for a student with visual impairment in general education class(es) throughout the school day with support from assistive technology, accommodations, minimal consultation, and/or a paraprofessional. Evaluation teams grappling with this issue are advised to consult with their district’s legal counsel.
• If a student receives consultation services from a special education service provider (including TSVI and O&M) to adjust what is happening in the general education classroom to allow the student to receive educational benefits, those students continue to qualify under IDEA (Corbin, 2021). Districts that are trying to graduate students from an IEP to a 504 Plan with accommodations are going to have a tough time exiting the student where there is an acknowledged disability and acknowledged need. Discuss specific case concerns and considerations with the district's legal counsel about whether the service needs to be direct or indirect.

• Determine the student’s current strengths, challenges, and impacts on learning. The evaluation must be in all suspected areas of need, which includes potential additional eligibility areas.
• Determine what supports are needed to develop independence and competency.

• Consider what supports exist to stimulate the student's motivation, curiosity, and engagement.
• Ultimately, educators strive to instill the knowledge and skills for students to pursue their goals and experience quality of life.
• For high school students, evaluations can also provide information for post-secondary education planning, vocational training, and potential referrals to agencies that provide services after high school.

Evaluation Process

Collaborating Throughout the Process

Evaluating a student with visual impairments with a transdisciplinary approach is crucial. Each evaluator brings the lens of their expertise to identify the student’s strengths and needs. Collaboration among all the evaluators will facilitate an effective problem-solving process, produce meaningful results and recommendations, and lead to a cohesive, holistic plan to support the student. Capitalize on family members' knowledge, and integrate their input.

“Best practices dictate that a team of professionals including a school psychologist, visual impairment professional, and a speech pathologist evaluate the individual” per Guideline 4 of Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired (Goodman et al., 2011, Issue 4: Collaboration section, para. 1).

TSVI’s Role on Evaluation Team

• Teachers of Students with Visual Impairments have expertise in visual impairments and their impacts on development and functioning. The first steps of the evaluation should be to review relevant educational and medical records and consult the TSVI.
• TSVIs provide guidance on what the student can access visually, how to adapt activities and environments to provide access appropriately, what is the student’s learning media, and what assistive technology is necessary to facilitate the student’s access and learning readiness.
• To see examples of the types of tests TSVIs may administer, check out What's in Your Assessment Toolbox Handout (CSB), which includes information about specific assessment tools for FVA, LMA, O&M, AT, ECC, and more.
• TSVIs evaluate visual functioning and learning medium by conducting a Functional Vision Assessment and Learning Media Assessment (FVA/LMA). Education specialists, resource specialists, Special Day Class teachers, or psychologists evaluate academic achievement.

• For example, TSVIs examine reading media (e.g., large print, braille, and/or auditory). Education specialists, RSPs, SDC teachers, or psychologists examine aspects related to reading disability (e.g., phonological processing, decoding, and reading comprehension).
• Many TSVI graduate training programs do not include training in standardized norm-referenced assessment. Other special education professionals, such as resource specialists, should be involved when learning disabilities are suspected.

• Collaboration with TSVIs is crucial to ensure the evaluation in all areas is valid and meaningful.
• A TSVI may be present during testing in addition to the primary examiner (e.g., school psychologist or education specialist) to assist with assistive technology and braille.
• Information about FVAs can be found in the California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, § 56352.
• More information about the TSVI’s roles and functions can be found in the position paper from the Division on Visual Impairments and Deafblindness of the Council for Exceptional Children (Spungin et al., 2017).

Orientation and Mobility Specialist’s (O&M) Role on the Evaluation Team

• Interview the student, the student’s family, and educators to gather information about travel areas of strength and need.
• Evaluate the student’s use of sensory information including any functional vision in the community (outside of the classroom).
• Observe how the student travels in various environments (simple to complex, indoors and outdoors, familiar and unfamiliar).
• Conduct assessments to evaluate a student’s O&M skills, such as self-protective techniques, guide techniques, spatial concept development, and long cane/adapted mobility device travel.
• Inform IEP team members about how to appropriately guide a student and the safest ways to support a student traveling on campus.
• Collaboration with O&M specialists is crucial to supporting a student’s safety and independence on the school campus.
• Some VI professionals are dually certified as TSVI and O&M specialists and provide both services for a student.
• Information about O&M evaluations can be found in the California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, § 56352.

SLP’s Role on the Evaluation Team

• The greater the degree of VI, the more likely children with VI are to present with early social and communication difficulties (Parr et al., 2010).
• The SLP role will depend on the individual needs of the child. Some areas frequently impacted by Visual Impairment that a SLP will investigate include:

• Early play skills and development
• Social development and pragmatic language
• Expressive and receptive vocabulary
• Auditory comprehension
• Reading comprehension
• Higher level language (nonliteral language, multiple meanings, etc.)
• Inference abilities
• Narrative and storytelling skills

• Speech/Language Tools and their Relationship to Cognitive/Achievement Tools from Ventura County is a handy document to assist evaluation teams in planning assessments and analysis of data.
• For more information, review Speech & Language Assessment Considerations for Children with Visual Impairment (CSB, Henry & Solomon, 2022).

School Psychologist’s Role on the Evaluation Team

• The content areas school psychologists may be responsible for may vary from district to district but may include

• Cognition and processing: may include general knowledge, reasoning, memory, visual-spatial processing, auditory processing, attention, executive functioning, and more.
• Academic achievement: Some districts have special education teachers (Resource Specialist, Special Day Class Teacher, Specialized Academic Instruction Teacher, or Education Specialists) administer academic achievement tests while school psychologists are responsible for this testing in other districts.
• Social-emotional and behavioral functioning: Aspects of social-emotional and behavioral functioning may overlap with the evaluation from other educators and specialists; a collaborative approach is highly recommended.
• Adaptive behaviors: Independent living skills should be examined collaboratively as educators, parents/caregivers/family, and service providers will have insights on how consistently students are demonstrating adaptive behaviors.

• Similar to SLPs, OTs, and special education teachers, school psychologists have training in descriptive statistics and psychometrics, which provide the foundation for administering and interpreting standardized tests. Though the school psychologist may be quite knowledgeable of tests that may address the referral questions, consulting and collaborating with the TSVI will be essential to optimally set up the testing environment, determine tests the student can access meaningfully, and assist in interpretation. Information from the TSVI’s Functional Vision Assessment and Learning Media Assessment (FVA/LMA) will provide critical information for choosing an assessment tool, utilizing accommodations to provide access, and interpreting the results. Test results may be inappropriately interpreted and overestimate or underestimate a student’s abilities without this collaborative team approach.
• In addition, consultation with the TSVI can provide information about the etiology of the student’s visual impairment and an overview of educational considerations, which can be extremely helpful. School psychology graduate training programs often provide brief information about low-incidence disabilities that do not encompass the vast complexity and range of needs and essential considerations.
• School psychologists and speech language pathologists perform analyses of the student’s educational, communication, cognitive, and functional profile to determine eligibility for special education and integrate considerations of data from their evaluation team members.
• Resources for school psychologists about evaluating students with visual impairments:

• Most school psychologists already have assessment textbooks by Dr. Jerome M. Sattler on their bookshelves since many graduate programs include his series of books as required foundational reading. In the Foundations of Behavioral, Social, and Clinical Assessment of Children, Sixth Edition, chapter 20 is dedicated to visual impairments and co-authored by Dr. Sattler and Dr. Carol Anne Evans (2014).
• Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired by Stephen Goodman, Marnee Loftin, and Dr. Carol Evans is posted on the American Printing House for the Blind. It is an excellent resource for guidance on testing students who are blind or visually impaired (2011). In particular, Issue 9 - Qualitative Interpretation and Issue 10 - Reporting Results will answer many common questions school psychologists tend to have about evaluations. It is highly recommended to review this guidance document before the evaluation.
• Collaborative Assessment Working with Students who are Blind or Visually Impaired, Including Those with Additional Disabilities was written by a previous assessment team at CSB to help educational professionals to understand the impact of visual impairment on the evaluation process (Goodman & Wittenstein [Eds.], 2003). The book focuses on evaluating students in a variety of areas, including psychology, speech and language, orientation and mobility, and technology, and provides a framework for developing a cooperative, interactive team of professionals from a variety of disciplines to achieve an accurate evaluation of the needs and strengths of students. The book can be previewed on Google Books.
• Making Evaluations Meaningful: Determining Additional Eligibilities and Appropriate Instructional Strategies for Bland and Visually Impaired Students, 2nd edition by Marnee Loftin (2022) is available in the TSBVI online store. Marnee generously has permitted excerpts from the 1st edition to be posted on Paths to Literacy.
• Psychoeducational Assessment of Students Who Have Visual Impairment: Perspectives of Teachers of Students Who Are Blind or Who Have Low Vision and School Psychologists is a doctoral dissertation by Dr. Carol Anne Evans (2007).

Potential Additional IEP Evaluators

• Other specialists who may need to be involved in the evaluation include OT, PT, APE, AT, behavioral, or inclusion specialists.
• Physical education is mandatory in CA starting in the 1st grade; therefore, it is recommended that an APE specialist evaluate to determine if APE services are needed.
• Assistive technology is crucial for students with VI. If the district has an AT specialist, he/she should consult with the TSVI as AT needs for VI students are very specialized. An AAC specialist may also be involved if the student has Augmentative or Alternative Communication (AAC) needs.
• OTs and PTs may be included on an evaluation team if the student has fine or gross motor needs or sensory processing challenges. Occupational Therapy and Sensory Integration for Visual Impairment is a great article from TSBVI OTR Lisa Ricketts that was last updated in 2017. 
• Behavioral specialists may be involved if the student needs a Functional Behavior Assessment and demonstrates the need for a Behavior Intervention Plan.
• In some districts, special education teachers (Resource Specialist, Special Day Class Teacher, Specialized Academic Instruction Teacher, or Education Specilists) administer academic achievement tests and provide input on the student’s academic, behavioral, social emotional, motor, sensory, communication, and daily living skills.
• General education teachers often provide input through interviews, questionnaires, or rating scales.

General Suggestions for Interactions

• Identify yourself and others in the environment if they do not identify themselves. Similarly, inform the student before leaving the room.
• Give the student a tactile reference point such as a desk, chair, or wall. Avoid leaving them in an open space.
• It is okay to use words like see or look.
• Be very specific in your descriptions. Phrases such as to your left/right provide much more information than over there.
• Ask if the student needs help. Give advanced notice, and ask for permission before touching when guiding a student (e.g., Would you like a guide?).
• Use your typical speaking voice; you do not need to talk louder than usual.
• Ask for clarification (e.g., What size print works best for you? Would a different type of lighting help you?). Help the student to develop self-advocacy.
• Provide opportunities for choice whenever possible.
• Speak directly to the student instead of talking to the paraprofessional or parent/guardian.
• The following are helpful guides:

• Tips for Inclusive Interactions from the American Printing House (APH, 2022)  
• When You Have a Visually Impaired Student with Multiple Disabilities in Your Classroom: A Guide for Teachers
• When You Have a Visually Impaired Student in Your Classroom: A Guide for Teachers 

• As is always important, be sure to build rapport with the student prior to beginning assessment. For ideas, check out Suggestions for Interactions During Evaluation. 

Planning Prior to the Evaluation

In addition to following the professional standards appropriate for all assessments (Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing: free eBook download of the current 2014 edition from AERA, APA, and NCME ), the following standards are of particular importance for anyone assessing a student who is blind or visually impaired.

• Recognize that the time needed to plan, prepare materials, conduct, and interpret this evaluation will be longer (some say five times longer!) than that needed for most other assessments. Multiple days may be needed for testing.
• As mentioned, consult with the vision specialists (TSVI and O&M) before, during, and after assessing the student.
• Review the ophthalmologist or optometrist report completed within the last year if possible. In addition, review and consider any medical information that could suggest the presence of conditions additional to vision impairment.
• Ideally, the TSVI’s evaluation is given priority and completed before other assessors work with the student. This allows other assessors to be sure that they present materials in the most accessible way for the student, improving the validity of findings.
• Review TSVI’s Functional Vision Assessment and Learning Media Assessment (FVA/LMA) to see what supports are needed for students to show what they know and learn efficiently and effectively. Consult with the TSVI to understand how to present materials in a way that best suits the student’s use of vision and what is the student’s best learning media before starting psychoeducational testing. Test using the student’s appropriate learning media to measure the student’s current levels.

• Choose only subtests or tests that are accessible (with or without changes) to the student.
• Include visual-spatial skills in the assessment if the student uses vision effectively for some learning.
• Consult with the TSVI about optimal positioning of materials, lighting requirements, visual fatigue, positioning of items in the environment in relation to the student, and presence of any eccentric viewing behaviors.
• Additionally, discuss with the TSVI and other educators/service providers of the student’s typical level of use of assistive technology. Offer access to the assistive technology the student is accustomed to, and recognize that some students, particularly adolescents, may refuse to use them.
• If assistive technology is used, ensure the testing room has adequate resources (e.g., power sources, batteries, etc.).

• Review information about the student’s specific eye condition. Primers on various visual impairments can be found in Databases for Etiologies of Vision Loss. 
• Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired from APH is an excellent resource for guidance on testing students who are blind or visually impaired (Goodman et al., 2011). In particular, Issue 9 - Qualitative Interpretation and Issue 10 - Reporting Results will answer many common questions school psychologists tend to have about evaluations. It is highly recommended to review this guidance document before the evaluation.
• According to “Access to Assessment? Legal and Practical Issues Regarding Psychoeducational Assessment in Children With Sensory Disabilities” (Lund et al., 2014),

Although some of the barriers to access for students who have visual impairment may be removed through the use of enlarged visual stimuli (Flanagan & Kauman, 2009), this accommodation would not work for students who have very little or no remaining vision…Although attempts to modify currently inaccessible subtests are laudable, these efforts are not yet a viable solution for the unbiased assessment of individuals with visual impairment…Although formal, standardized intelligence and achievement tests are still considered key components of current psychoeducational assessment practices, other supplemental sources of information should be used to provide a more comprehensive picture of a student’s overall academic and functional performance and needs. For example behavioral observation can provide valuable information on a student’s actual day-to-day performance in a classroom setting…[Reference to Larry P and IDEA amendment 2004]...This indicates a legal acknowledgement of the prominent place that observation should have in assessment in general…observing how an individual examinee interacts with a given task (e.g., corrections or error patterns) can provide valuable information in regard to their approach to challenging tasks and problem solving…In addition to observation, professionals who are assessing students with sensory disabilities should obtain information on the student’s academic and psychosocial functioning from multiple sources…When assessing students with sensory impairments, practitioners should give increased consideration to data from supplemental sources that assess skills and domains covered by the inaccessible portions of intelligence and achievement tests…Due to the numerous barriers that prevent many examinees with sensory impairments from receiving valid and unbiased psychoeducational assessment through standard batteries, questions of legal, ethical, and educational best practice are raised. Psychoeducational assessment, particularly intelligence testing, has long been a cornerstone of disability assessment in schools. However, for individuals with sensory impairments, best practice may involve de-emphasizing the prominence of standardized intellectual and achievement testing in the psychoeducational evaluation. (pp. 139-143)

• Use a multimethod, multiple-informant approach to the evaluation and gather data across settings (e.g., physical environments and social environments) and time. Utilizing a RIOT/ICEL approach to assessment helps to ensure that multiple sources of information are analyzed during evaluation.

RIOT/ICEL Approach to Evaluation

Using various assessment methods and information sources is crucial for ecological validity. Ecological validity refers to how well test results reflect real-world behaviors and functioning. It's important for all assessments.

RIOT/ICEL stands for Records review, Interviews, Observations, Testing; Instruction, Curriculum, Environment, Learning.

• As Dr. Brian Leung proposed in his 1993 article, assessment is a R.I.O.T.! per Dr. Hass and Dr. Leung’s (2020) article, When You Can’t R.I.O.T., R.I.O. 
• Using a RIOT/ICEL problem solving approach to evaluation is recommended. This comprehensive approach is part of bringing social justice practices into evaluations and shifts the focus beyond the learner and standardized assessments. We need to look beyond the numbers for meaningful data!
• Use of a RIOT/ICEL matrix can help shift the test-heavy narratives of evaluations to emphasize multiple sources of data about the instructional, curriculum, and environmental factors impacting a student.
• If RIOT/ICEL is a new concept to you, review The RIOT/ICEL Matrix: Organizing Data to Answer Questions About Student Academic Performance & Behavior from Intervention Central (Wright, 2010).

The following is a detailed breakdown of how RIOT/ICEL could be applied to evaluations of students with visual impairments.

Review Records

• Instruction

• Key record to review: Comprehensive Vision Assessment

• The TSVI completes the Comprehensive Vision Assessment and provides information about a student’s functional vision, learning media, assistive technology, and expanded core curriculum needs.
• It is essential to review information about the student’s functional vision and learning media assessment BEFORE starting the psychoeducational assessment; this data informs which testing tools and adaptations may be appropriate or needed.

• Check report cards and IEPs for documented accommodations or modifications to instructional methods. See what instructional strategies were noted to work or not work well for the student.

• For example, statements about response to repeated exposure to information, rate of instruction, and presentation of concepts.

• Review academic progress monitoring data to examine the student’s response to interventions if any had been implemented.
• Students with VI benefit from pre-teaching and opportunities to explore instructional materials before lessons. Consider how instruction is to provide meaningful access.

• Curriculum

• Examine work samples, benchmark standards, and IEP goals.
• Consider whether the IEP goals are aligned with Common Core State Standards and address areas of the Expanded Core Curriculum.
• Review what accommodations were implemented to adapt the curriculum.

• Braille
• Large print
• Audiobooks
• Tactile graphics
• 3D models
• Real objects

• Environment

• Check comments from previous teachers in report cards and/or IEPs about the learning environment, such as

• Student-to-adult ratio in the class
• Presence of clear school or class expectations, rules, and routines
• Physical layout of the school or classroom
• Level of parent/caregiver involvement at school and at home
• Discipline records
• Delivery/context of IEP service provision

• Individual or group
• Push-in or pull-out

• Presence of peer mentor or siblings assisting learning
• Attendance record (e.g., excused or unexcused tardies or absences)
• Accommodations to provide access (e.g., handheld magnifiers and video magnifiers)

• Learner

• Compare current knowledge with prior knowledge demonstrated in cumulative records.
• Review medical and school health records, including current vision and hearing screenings (e.g., within the last year).

• Ideally, a report from an ophthalmologist or optometrist is available for the team to review before starting assessments.
• The most recent report from the eye care specialist might not include the original cause of the visual impairment; thus, review medical reports that contain information about the cause.
• Examine records for other medical conditions.
• Research the specific visual impairment impacting the student and other medical conditions.
• Sometimes, families may be hesitant to share medical records; inform them that reviewing the records will allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the student and a higher quality assessment.

• Discern any patterns in the records, such as attendance trends, behavioral history, and rate of academic progress.

Interviews

• Instruction - Ask educators about:

• Choice of materials
• Placement of students, methods of grouping students
• Instructional strategies. Accommodations or modifications utilized, such as assistive technology.
• Sequencing and pace of instruction (e.g., repetition provided for understanding and mastery)
• Screening, formative, and summative assessments used
• Ways students are allowed to show what they know: dictation, written work, typed assignments, oral response, or group projects.
• Reinforcement, incentives, and engagement strategies
• Supplemental or intensive intervention provided

• Curriculum - Ask educators about:

• Student’s academic strengths and challenges
• Any modifications of benchmarks made for students
• Coverage of the core curriculum and expanded core curriculum, which includes compensatory access, social interaction, orientation and mobility, independent living, recreation and leisure, career education, assistive technology, sensory efficiency, and self-determination (Allman & Lewis, 2014).
• District or program expectations for coverage of curriculum and flexibility allowed for teachers to modify curriculum
• Accessibility of curriculum materials and other resources
• Technology integration

• Environment:

• Ask educators about:

• Classroom routines, rules, behavior management plans, schoolwide expectations
• If there are areas in the class with limited distractions/reduced stimuli
• Any specific changes to room layout to accommodate the student
• Opportunities for mentorships (peer-to-peer or adult-to-peer)
• Level of family/school collaboration

• Ask parent/caregivers/guardians about:

• Routines around healthy behaviors

• Sleeping: Is the student getting enough sleep? Per the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (2016),

• Infants aged 4 - 12 months need 12 to 16 hours of sleep.
• Toddlers aged 1 - 2 years need 11 to 14 hours.
• Students aged 3 – 5 years old need 10 to 13 hours.
• Students aged 6 – 12 years old need 9 to 12 hours.
• Students aged 13 – 18 years old need 8 to 10 hours.

• Nutrition
• Physical activity
• Leisure/social connection

• Any involvement in extracurricular activities (e.g., clubs, sports, religious organizations, or VI specific organizations)
• Consistency between caregivers
• Level of family/school collaboration

• Ask the student about

• Perceptions about the home, school, and other social environments, such as clubs or community groups

• Learner:

• Ask the student about:

• Perceptions about strengths, hobbies, interests, challenges, and needs
• Beliefs around self-determination, autonomy, and self-advocacy
• Adjustment to visual impairment and other needs
• Social interactions and mentorships within the school, home, and community
• Chores or responsibilities within the home
• Goals and aspirations

• Ask parents/caregiver/guardians about:

• Medical/health challenges that may impact learning including sleep and nutrition
• Perceptions about the students’ learning, progress, motivators, and challenges
• Family involvement in school activities and/or extracurricular activities
• How the student interacts with others in the home and community and how is the quality of relationships with others
• Independent living skills the student consistently demonstrates
• The student’s functioning in terms of sensory processing and stereotypic behaviors
• How the student copes with adversity and the student’s mental health functioning

• Ask educators about:

• Perceptions about student’s personal strengths, challenges, motivators, and interests
• Student’s interactions and relationships with others in structured and unstructured settings
• Adaptive or maladaptive behaviors

Observations

• According to Guideline 8 of Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired (Goodman et al., 2011, Issue 8: Direct Observation section, para. 1), “[o]bservation is an important component of the evaluation of any person, but it is even more critical for visually impaired individuals. The limited number of evaluation instruments available necessitates an increased emphasis on observation in clinical as well as real-life settings. Observation provides the evaluator with valuable knowledge to supplement information from the normative evaluation.”
• Instruction

• Observe in at least 20 minute periods, preferably in a variety of student groupings such as whole group instruction, small group instruction, group work, and independent work time.
• Observe methods to sustain attention and reinforce expected behavior.
• Examine how the student is prepared for transitions.
• Note the supports needed to maintain engagement, such as prompts from adults or peers or reward systems.
• Look for what types of instructional procedures or methods best support the student’s learning.

• Curriculum

• Compare peers’ responses to curriculum versus the student’s.
• Observe whether students are provided multiple practice opportunities.
• Note how the student is expected to exhibit understanding of the content or skill being taught.
• Document which aspects of the expanded core curriculum are addressed.

• Environment

• Observe in academic/structured and social/unstructured environments.
• Consider what supports in the various settings help the student to be ready to learn and function at an optimal level.
• Examine how others in the different environments interact with the student.
• Consider whether the same or different types of accommodations or modifications are implemented across settings.
• Note what other general education or special education students are doing.

• Learner

• Note use of assistive technology and what barriers are present to the student’s access.
• Observe the student’s interactions with peers and adults.
• Examine how the student processes instruction and approaches novel tasks.
• Observe demonstrated executive functioning skills, such as organization of materials and tasks and level of independence in work production and engagement. Does the student initiate work or wait to be prompted by an adult? Over-reliance on adult support is a common issue that can be mitigated.

• Best practices for legal defensibility: Document the following in observation write-ups (Corbin, 2021).

• Time of observation
• Length of observation: Observations should be at least 20 minutes long.
• What were the general education students doing?
• What were the special education students doing?
• What was the student being evaluated doing?

Testing

• Instruction

• Dynamic assessment methods with pretesting for baseline data, training or intervention, and posttest to determine learning potential or ways to help students learn efficiently. Provide a student the opportunity to demonstrate use of various ways to show their knowledge.
• Teacher evaluation of successful instructional strategies and areas where support may be needed

• Curriculum

• Examine the instructional materials and other resources for accessibility and appropriateness for the students’ current level of functioning.
• Evaluate the student’s response to curriculum based assessments.
• Expanded core curriculum areas where school psychologists and the TSVIs may overlap include:

• social interaction,
• career education,
• independent living skills,
• self-determination,
• and recreation and leisure.

• Environment

• Classroom environment survey completed by the teacher and student as appropriate
• Mapping of the classroom environment
• Compare learning and behaviors across settings. Determine which subject areas or settings that the student responds well or exhibits more difficulties.

• Learner

• The team directly assesses in all areas of concern, which may include academic achievement, cognitive abilities and processing, social-emotional and behavioral functioning (including self-awareness and self-advocacy), daily living skills, functional vision, learning media, assistive technology, orientation and mobility, gross and fine motor skills, sensory processing, attention and executive functioning.
• Tests may be formal or informal and norm-referenced or criterion-referenced.
• Rating scales and checklists may be utilized.
• Attend to issues such as visual efficiency, visual fatigue, organization skills, O&M skills, and the presence of any self-stimulatory behaviors.
• Include social emotional and behavioral functioning in your evaluation.

• "Given the high rate of social skills difficulties reported in this population and the effect of these difficulties on all stages of development, it seems particularly relevant for practitioners to integrate social skills assessment and explicit teaching into intervention programs." (Caron et al., 2023, p. 128)
• “Assessment of emotional status should be a component of every assessment of a student who is blind or visually impaired” (Russo, 2003, p. 169).  
• Research “suggest[s] that a substantial proportion of students with visual impairments may experience more emotional and behavioral difficulties than the average youth while lacking the adaptive skills to manage their conduct adequately” (Sims et al., 2021, p. 310).

Standardized Assessment Administration Considerations

There is no one-size-fits-all assessment battery. Test using the student’s learning media (e.g., braille, auditory, large print, tactile graphics, dual media) identified by a TSVI.

• “The most widely used intelligence tests have not been developed with a representative sample of blind or visually impaired individuals during standardization. To date, separate norms are not available. The diversity of the population with visual impairments makes it unlikely that development of such norms would ever occur” (Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired, Goodman et al., 2011, Issue: 10: Reporting Results section, para. 1).
• The few tests that were created specifically for individuals with visual impairments often have problematic psychometric properties or have outdated norms.
• “Tests developed for blind and partially sighted people are useful on an individual basis to assess a person's academic progress or understand learning needs. However, due to a lack of validation they are less useful for comparing performance against others” (Psychometric tests for blind and partially sighted people, Atkins, 2012, p. 5).
• Many professionals suggest that exams should not be timed when used with blind or partially sighted learners” (Psychometric tests for blind and partially sighted people, Atkins, 2012, p. 11).
• Per the “Visual Impairments” chapter in Foundations of Behavioral, Social, and Clinical Assessment of Children (Sattler & Evans, 2014),

Although cognitive tests designed especially for children with visual impairments would be useful, there currently are no nationally standardized tests available for use with this population. Therefore, you will need to select from the more general instruments currently available. Clearly, tests that place a heavy emphasis on visual activities, especially those with verbal subtests having visual components, are not the best choice for children who are blind or who have severe to profound low vision.

The ability of children to answer verbal items on cognitive ability tests may be limited if the information depends in part on visual experiences (“What should you do if you see a child hit another child on the playground?” or “What does the phrase ‘room with a view’ mean?”). This consideration pertains primarily to children who are congenitally blind although it may also apply to those severely visually impairment children who have not had life experiences similar to those of sighted children. (p. 567)

• It is permissible to use tests normed on sighted individuals; however, keep in mind that many tests are inappropriate to use exactly as they were standardized since the tests were developed to be used with individuals who are sighted. Consult with the TSVI about the student’s functional vision and learning media. Collaborate to determine appropriate test accommodations or modifications to facilitate the student’s engagement and meaningful demonstration of knowledge or skills. Document any breaks from standardized procedures, and consider whether qualitative interpretation would be more meaningful and appropriate.
• Consider whether you are testing what the test intended to measure or the impacts of the visual impairment. It is valuable to compare students with visual impairments to students who are sighted since they will be competing for entrance to colleges and jobs in the future; however, use caution when interpreting results. “Psychometric tests are often used to test innate ability, but the skills being assessed for a blind or partially sighted person may differ from the skills being assessed for a sighted person” (Psychometric tests for blind and partially sighted people, Atkins, 2012, p. 5). See the Interpreting Results section of this document for additional guidance.
• Standard norms rarely will be an accurate reflection of the experience of a student with visual impairment. Standard scores, scale scores, percentiles, age and grade equivalents may mask a student’s true skills and abilities (e.g., may be more of a minimal estimate).
• As a result, examiners will need to use their knowledge about development, individual differences, and the student’s performance to make a careful effort to provide and document a valid assessment.
• Strive to present tasks to neither increase nor decrease the cognitive demand relative to that which would be expected of an individual who is sighted.
• Cognitive and Processing Subtests to Consider for Assessing Students with Visual Impairments: This FAQ document provides information about some auditorily administered subtests to consider when testing using a Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) cross-battery method (XBA) as described by Flanagan, Alfonso, and Ortiz (2014). This is a live document, and more subtests will be added.

• The information about specific tests is also available within this document under Appendix A FAQ 1. What tests can I use with a student who is blind or visually impaired? 

• Cognitive functioning related to auditory learning skills (e.g., short-term memory, working memory, and listening comprehension) is crucial to assess.
• Increase the emphasis on observation to supplement test results, including response to frustration, task attention, and general approach to problem solving.
• If some IEP team members are not familiar with standardized testing, they can review this basic primer, Standard Scores, What Do They Mean?! Tuesday Tea Handout 3-23-21 (CSB).

Braille and Tactile Graphics

• Braille is complex (e.g., uncontracted vs. contracted UEB, Nemeth vs. UEB for math and science, and double-sided [interpoint] or single-sided).

• Do not transcribe standardized tests to braille.
• Team administration with TSVI is advised to assist in interpretations of braille reading and writing items.

• Tactile adaptations (e.g., tactile graphics) may not increase accessibility for those who are not accustomed to gathering information through that sense. Tactile graphic literacy must be explicitly taught.

Use of Visual Stimuli

• Use test materials with visuals if the student uses vision for learning; however, It is important to remember that students' visual acuity does not "tell the whole story" of what they can see.
• Refer to the Functional Vision Assessment and Learning Media Assessment results, and consult the TSVI.
• Tests involving visuals may need to be interpreted qualitatively, instead of quantitatively.
• Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired from APH is an excellent resource for guidance on testing students who are blind or visually impaired (Goodman et al., 2011). Review Issue 9 - Qualitative Interpretation. The following is a summary; please review the APH guidance document for details.

• Administration of visual-spatial tests may be permissible:

• If vision is used for learning, and the FVA and LMA indicate adequate vision for the specific visual demands of the test.
• If the TSVI and psychologist agree that information can be obtained pertaining to the referral questions and current functioning.

• Visual-spatial tests may be helpful in determining accommodation and modifications that may be needed for educational or vocational instruction and materials or revealing strengths in certain types of tasks.
• Interpreting the student’s performance qualitatively is recommended. Visual-spatial results must never be used to confirm the presence of other disabilities; scores from visual-spatial tests almost never are to be reported. Additional guidance about reporting performance on visual-spatial tests is addressed in Issue 10 of the APH Intelligence Testing guidance document.
• Examples of qualitative interpretations of performance on visual-spatial tasks are included in Appendix B of Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired of the APH guidance document.

Testing Accommodations & Modifications

Adaptations/Accommodations

• Accommodations: changes that provide access that does not alter the concepts being tested or the level of difficulty
• Examples include masking items and using bold line paper, dark marker, slant board, brailler, or abacus.
• Accommodating tests and tasks to make them visually accessible does not account for all the differences that learners with VI may have.
• Results from adapted tests may be reported quantitatively.

Modifications

• Modifications: changes that affect the concepts tested.
• Some examples to carefully consider and potentially avoid (or administer and interpret qualitatively only) are:

• extra time to respond to timed tasks,
• extra time to look at stimuli on memory tasks,
• enlargement on speeded tasks,
• enlargement on visual-perceptual tasks,
• typing/dictating instead of writing by hand on timed tasks,
• text-to-speech for reading comprehension,
• and giving verbal descriptions (outside of what is typically allowed) on visual tasks.

• Do not report results from modified tests quantitatively.

Enlargement

• “Large Print” materials may not be sufficiently enlarged for every student with low vision.
• When using magnification, ensure the entire page can be seen on one screen.
• Consider whether enlargement is accommodating or modifying the task.

• Larger response booklets may lower the difficulty of visual motor integration and control tasks.
• Scanning a wider field may increase the difficulty of a task and impact the student’s performance, such as on tasks measuring processing speed and visual memory.
• If enlargement impacts the level of difficulty, do not report scores.

Non-Standardized Assessment

• Test the limits with accommodations and/or modifications to test materials or procedures to gain a better understanding of the student’s functioning while minimizing the impacts of the visual impairment on the student’s ability to show what they know.
• In many cases, non-standardized assessment methods provide useful clinical information that helps to inform recommendations.
• Dynamic Assessment

• Dynamic assessment is a fluid, responsive, and evidence based Test-Teach-Retest procedure that combines both assessment and teaching processes to identify skills and capacity to learn and problem solve.
• This type of holistic, nuanced assessment allows the examiner to use intentional questions and cues to support language learning within meaningful events as opposed to measuring specific skills on a decontextualized standardized test.
• Using dynamic assessment, the examiner is able to differentiate between independent and assisted functioning by observing the student's learning processes, strategies, and capacities for change with scaffolding.
• Dynamic assessment can be used to (Corona, 2022)

• “Assess capacity to learn and problem solve
• Assess the type and amount of teaching required to learn
• Identify cognitive factors responsible for problem-solving ability and academic success or failure
• Identify motivational, emotional, and personality factors that affect cognitive processes”

• Basic Framework (Corona, 2022)

• Test: Assess student’s current performance
• Teach

• Use a mediated learning experience (MLE)
• Help the child develop strategies; note the type and amount of teaching required for the student to learn
• Observe the child’s modifiability

• Test

• Compare performance to pretest
• Assess transfer of strategies

• “Dynamic assessment methods

• Administer a formal, standardized assessment
• Teach using a MLE [mediate learning experience]
• Test the limits
• Conduct a skill inventory
• Conduct an ecological assessment” (Corona, 2022)

• Tracking outcome in response to intervention
• Include data from rating scales, records, interviews, and observations to supplement testing data.

Interpreting Results

• Our recommendations are only as good as the data that they are based on. To ensure ecological validity, collect data from multiple sources and settings over time. Compare testing results to data from records review, interviews, observations, rating scales, and/or checklists to see if there are any discrepancies among the data collected.
• Thoroughly document any alterations to materials or methods in the report and consider the impact on validity.

• Per “A critique of the use of psychometric assessments with visually impaired children and young people” (Minks et al., 2020),

The primary ethical issue to consider is one of test validity - are the sub-tests still measuring what they were designed to measure? (Flanagan & Kaufman, 2009) If there are doubts about this, then extreme caution is necessary when interpreting test results, particularly if they are linked to key decision-making about the child’s future provision…If such interpretation regarding students with VI are accompanied by extreme cautionary caveats, one should consider the usefulness of selecting such assessments in the first place. (pp. 178-179)

• Consider how intelligence, child development, and test use (development, construction, administration, and interpretation) are impacted by vision issues.

• Scores on verbal reasoning may be lower than sighted peers due to hollow language or fragmented concept development.

• For example, the DAS-2 Verbal Similarities subtest asks how 3 things go together. Consider how a student would contemplate potential categories for items that they might not have been exposed to through stories or experience. For instance, would a student have a meaningful understanding of how hopscotch, checkers, and football go together if the opportunity to play or observe such games were not experienced?
• Another example is the question, “What has many contests, cowboys, and horses?” from the KACB-2 NU Riddles subtest. Although a sighted student might not have experienced a rodeo, casually watching a video or looking at images of rodeos in a story can help to solidify understanding of what activities typically occur and who or what usually is present at a rodeo. If a student with visual impairment has not been explicitly taught about cowboys or related concepts to a rodeo, the concepts can be easily misinterpreted, such as a cowboy might be guessed to be a young male cow.

• Scores on short-term auditory memory may be higher than sighted peers as students with visual impairments may rely on this modality for learning more and have increased practice with this skill.

• Professional judgment is critical when interpreting results. Psychologists and TSVIs should collaborate to determine whether the results may be a reflection of the student’s abilities or more of a reflection of what supports are needed to accommodate the visual impairment. Identify important clinical information that can form the basis for cautious and collaborative clinical judgments.
• In most cases, it is recommended to not calculate index scores (e.g., Performance, Nonverbal, and Visual) or full scale IQ scores when subtests with visual stimuli are involved, particularly on timed tasks and especially on those with bonus points for rapid completion. Interpret the student’s performance qualitatively to illustrate the ways in which performance deteriorates when increased demands are placed on the visual system.
• Look beyond the numbers! Use students’ performance on standardized tests as data for determining what strategies and accommodations might be best for supporting their learning and daily functioning. Analyze the data beyond the scores. Focus on what fosters problem solving, learning, and functional skills.
• Strive to identify potentially overlooked strengths, implications for learning, and meaningful accommodations or shifts in instructional focus.
• Consult with the IEP team (vision impairment specialists, classroom teacher, service providers, family, and student) to explore alternative explanations of data and results.

Social Emotional & Behavioral Evaluation Considerations

Schools typically focus on the academic criteria for competence and independence, but non-academic aspects of these goals may be more central to the life of the student who is blind or visually impaired. Youth with visual impairment are at increased risk of challenges with mental health and well-being. “Assessment of emotional status should be a component of every assessment of a student who is blind or visually impaired. Issues such as self-esteem, depression, and anxiety are often a part of the clinical picture of a student who is blind or visually impaired” (Collaborative Assessment Working with Students who are Blind or Visually Impaired, Including Those with Additional Disabilities, Russo, 2003, p. 169). Awareness of self and others, self-advocacy, optimism, emotional regulation, curiosity, motivation, ability to persist at a task, daily living skills, organization skills, self-reliance, and coping strategies are just a few of the skills that influence whether a student will thrive or fail in school. Focused attention on the development of these skills is essential. Here are some basic guidelines:

• Identify students’ awareness of self and others, particularly age-appropriate awareness of personality factors. This will include knowledge of strengths and weaknesses and what helps support their school success. Some students can articulate what supports they require in order to be successful; others may have limited insight. Consider how best to develop or compensate for missing skills.
• Projective measures (e.g., sentence completion, story starters, and interpretation of vignettes) can give insight as to motivation, strategy, and competence.
• If rating scales are used, it is important to scan and, if necessary, adjust specific items to reflect their intent and minimize inappropriateness. Self-ratings are particularly problematic for a student who cannot see the patterns and behaviors of others. With any rating scale, the psychologist must clarify the impact of capacity, opportunity, and support, which others may not have recognized.
• Consider how the student engages with peers and adults. Without the ability to scan a room, identify current or potential friends, or read facial and body language, it is particularly challenging to initiate social behavior. Isolation and passivity are significant risks unless addressed directly. Dependence can be a risk if a student is supported by an overly helpful adult for most activities.
• In cases when behavior is inappropriate, consider whether the expected behavior is achievable and meaningful for a person with less visual stimulation. Self-restraint and compliance are most achievable when a person has desires or goals that will benefit from mastering these skills. Otherwise, they represent suppression of energy rather than forward motion. Consider why this student would want to do this behavior.
• Social relationships, leisure activities, vision rehabilitation services, and independence in mobility impact daily life functioning and quality of life. Adolescents with visual impairments may be reluctant to utilize their assistive devices for fear of bringing attention to their visual impairment or appearing different from their peers; however, infrequent use of assistive technology may reduce independence and efficiency in academic or vocational tasks. Consider whether the student may require counseling for adjustment to their visual impairment. Counseling may assist with accepting their visual impairment, developing a more integrated sense of identity, and increasing use of services and tools to improve independence.
• Social Emotional & Behavioral Evaluation Resources

• Review some examples of interview and observational evaluation forms in Appendix E: Sample Evaluation Forms.
• Social Skills Assessment Tool for Children with Visual Impairments Revised (SSAT-VI:R) (Wolffe & Sacks, 2006) from Teaching Social Skills to Students with Visual Impairments: From Theory to Practice (APH) Chapter 9: Social Skills Assessment includes best practices, development by school-age, and checklists.
• More evaluation tools can be found in What's in Your Assessment Toolbox Handout (CSB).

Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Considerations

• The TSVI, O&M, psychologist, and other specialists involved in the evaluation should collaborate on adaptive behavior or independent living skills. This includes exploring whether the student takes care of personal grooming, organizes belonging, has opportunities to take on responsibilities, and contributes to the welfare of others.
• Compare home, community, and school behaviors to determine which independent living skills are exhibited consistently and if supports are needed for certain settings. Students with visual impairments often will have splinter skills.
• Although there are many standardized measures for adaptive behavior, daily living skills may be better captured by checklists and confirmed through interviews and observations. For younger students or students who are present with early or emerging skills in adaptive behavior, standardized measures may not have enough of a “floor” or items at the early developmental levels to meaningfully show the skills the students can perform.
• Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Resources

• Independent Living Skills (ILS) Checklist from Michigan Department of Education Low Incidence Outreach is a great tool to consider to gather information collaboratively. Their grade level guides also may be helpful to consider what adaptive behaviors the student currently is able to perform.

• Preschool [PDF]
• 2nd Grade [PDF]
• 4th Grade [PDF]
• Elementary School [PDF]
• Middle School [PDF]
• 10th Grade [PDF]
• 12th Grade [PDF]

• CSB ILS/Home Skills Questionnaire 

• CSB Questionnaire - In Spanish
• Examines 7 skill areas (eating, food preparation, self care, dressing, car, O&M, recreation & leisure)

• Total Life Learning: Preparing for Transition. A Curriculum for All Students with Sensory Impairments

• The Total Life Learning curriculum from Perkins School for the Blind was developed for students ages 3 to 22 who are blind, visually impaired including those students who have additional disabilities or are deafblind (Bridgeo et al., 2014).
• The focus is on the development of life and career goals that enable students to maximize independence, self-determination, employability, and participation in the community. The curriculum provides teachers with goals, objectives and activities in the following content areas: work skills, organizational skills, self-advocacy skills, personal care/daily living skills, employment, and secondary education.
• The curriculum articulates the importance of beginning instruction on foundation skills in these content areas at a young age for students with visual impairments to ensure that they develop the concepts necessary to navigate the world around them.
• The curriculum assessment tool includes work skills, organizational skills, self advocacy skills, personal/daily life skills, employment, and post-secondary education.

• More evaluation tools can be found in What's in Your Assessment Toolbox Handout (CSB).

Report Writing Considerations

• Again, look beyond the numbers! Minimize the emphasis upon simply reporting scores, and maximize the potential for real-life applicability of results to promote independence and self-advocacy.
• As previously mentioned, carefully document any changes in standardized administration, including accommodations and modifications. Also, document any assistive technology offered and the student’s level of use of them.
• Report and interpret the results of any visual-spatial assessment with caution and consideration of what the scores represent. Typically, they would be reported qualitatively as clinical observations rather than quantitatively with specific scores.
• If deemed appropriate to report scores on any test, keep in mind that students who are cognitively intact may score lower than their sighted peers since vision facilitates cognitive and language development. Use confidence intervals of 95% when reporting scores.
• Personalize the report; try to avoid using blanket statements.
• Provide a validity statement that clarifies general and specific validity concerns or limitations. If the following examples are used, personalize them for the particular student.

• Generic example: Instruments designed for fully sighted individuals but used with students who are visually impaired or blind can be useful when interpreted by persons knowledgeable of the effects of visual impairment on cognitive development and test performance. The results of many norm-referenced tests standardized on sighted individuals are conservative indicators of the characteristics being measured. The results provide a snapshot of current skills and knowledge. The results presented in this report are deemed to be a meaningful characterization of [the student’s] current performance. No single test or procedure was used as the sole criterion for classification, eligibility or educational planning.
• CHC cross-battery (XBA) assessment example (Miller, 2010) with VI considerations: Instruments designed for fully sighted individuals but used with students who are visually impaired or blind can be useful when interpreted by persons knowledgeable of the effects of visual impairment on cognitive development and test performance. The results of many norm-referenced tests standardized on sighted individuals are conservative indicators of the characteristics being measured. The results presented in this report were compiled from tests that do not share a common norm group; however, test results have been interpreted following the cross-battery approach and integrated with data from other sources including educational records, parent/teacher interviews, behavioral observations, work samples, and other test findings to ensure ecological validity. Standardization was followed for all test administrations, except for [document test accommodations and modifications]; performance was interpreted qualitatively instead of quantitatively where standardized procedures were broken and validity was compromised. The results provide a snapshot of current skills and knowledge and are deemed to be a meaningful characterization of [the student’s] current performance. No single test or procedure was used as the sole criterion for classification, eligibility or educational planning.
• TBI example: [The student] had a traumatic brain injury at [age], had to relearn all language following the injury, lacks [eye and/or field vision impacts], and cannot use [specific body part or side of the body]. No test exists that has been validated on a population of students with such a constellation of circumstances and injuries. The tests used for this assessment “assume” facility with skills that [the student] does not have and therefore become a measure of these skills rather than what was intended. For example if a test requires speed and fine motor manipulation of blocks to assess perceptual reasoning, it will be measuring speed and fine motor skills as much as perceptual reasoning when [the student] attempts it. These factors were taken into careful consideration during assessment and interpretation. The goal of this assessment was to obtain a measure of [the student’s] strengths and weaknesses with minimal interference from factors that are not under [the student’s] control. Speed, fine motor skill, and vision requirements were minimized as much as possible. Observation, experience, and examples were given significant weight in addition to test score results.

• Additional report writing examples

• Report writing samples
• Sample Letter for ID & VI 

• Intelligence Testing of Individuals Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired from APH is an excellent resource for guidance on testing students who are blind or visually impaired (Goodman et al., 2011). Review Issue 10 - Reporting Results.
• Shift towards more teacher- and parent-friendly reports.

• Consider collaboratively writing reports by themes or skill areas (instead of by tests) that “describes areas of functioning by integrating multiple sources of data from observations, interviews, and standardized assessments” (Desai & Hite [must be NASP member to view link], 2021, p. 9).
• Discuss with your evaluation team the idea of writing an integrated multidisciplinary team report instead of each examiner producing a separate report.
• Consider creating a 1- or 2-page summary of key strengths and challenges and link concrete recommendations to areas of need.
• Shift the focus from psychometric jargon to what the results mean in behavioral or functional terms.

• Resources relating to report readability

• The CDC Clear Communication Index (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
• CMS Toolkit for Making Written Material Clear and Effective (U.S. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services)

Recommendations

• Recommendations should be created collaboratively with TSVI, O&M, and other evaluation team members. Again, collaboration is key!
• There is no one-size-fits-all model for recommendations for VI students. The individual needs of each student with visual impairment must guide educational programming, including accommodations, modifications, and instructional strategies. Ideally, the carefully collected evaluation data leads to appropriately challenging goals, which the services then are built upon to facilitate the student’s progress towards goals.  
• TSVIs and O&Ms often provide recommendations about the following areas:

• Which learning media (e.g., braille, large print, audio) are best suited for the student’s current needs.
• How to best access information in a classroom including books, charts, bulletin boards, etc.
• Best seating arrangement for optimal access.
• Accessibility of campus buildings and classrooms.
• Ideas for organization of materials (i.e., magnification systems, computer, braille, etc.)
• Expanded Core Curriculum-related skills.
• Safe and efficient travel on campus and in the community.

• Please see Appendix D: Potential Recommendation Resources for ideas to consider for supporting students.
• Clearly document recommendations for eligibility including eligibility criteria and why students qualify or not under each eligibility category assessed (Corbin, 2021). California VI eligibility example:

“In the opinion of this school psychologist, STUDENT does meet the eligibility criteria as a student with a visual impairment. All final decisions regarding eligibility and services will be determined by the IEP team at the IEP meeting.

VISUAL IMPAIRMENT CRITERIA:

The IEP team will consider the following information in making the final decision regarding eligibility pursuant to California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Sec. 3030(b)(13).

❐  1. The student has an impairment in vision, including blindness. [Include a brief description of visual impairment.]

❐  2. The student’s visual impairment, even with correction, adversely affects educational performance. [Include a brief description of areas impacted.]

❐  3. By reason of the disability, the student needs special education and related services.” [Include a brief description of which special education supports and services are being proposed to meet student’s needs.]

• According to IDEA, schools must ensure the availability of a continuum of alternative placements to provide options for educating students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment. If you are in California, you are required to mention California School for the Blind on the continuum of Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) in discussions of Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) and FAPE.

• When considering LRE, districts frequently and traditionally view the general education classroom in the local school of residence as being the LRE and options further away from the general education class as being more restrictive. The LRE is the setting that meets the student’s academic, physical, and health needs. Consider whether the district is able to fully meet the student’s needs.  
• Remember education is more than academics; behavioral and social emotional progress are components of educational access and progress considerations.

• When drafting the report and recommendations, consider “A Bill of Rights for All Children with Visual Impairment and their Families,” which was created in 2019 by the Council of Schools and Services for the Blind (COSB) and the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired (AERBVI). Consider whether your evaluation and subsequent recommendations address the spirit of the rights described. The following are TSBVI’s Superintendent Emily Coleman’s interpretation of the intent within each “Right.” 

• “My child deserves easy access to the right professionals expecting his success.
• My child deserves an education based on his specific needs.
• I deserve accurate information to make the best choices for my son, and access to professionals and organizations that can help.
• My child with visual impairment deserves braille instruction.
• I deserve to know about the unique skills needed for my son who is blind.
• My child deserves additional, blindness specific instruction outside of standard coursework.
• My child deserves all the same information as his peers…in whatever way he needs it.
• I deserve to know about all school settings to have a voice in the placement decision.
• My child deserves educators that will prepare him for the future.
• My son deserves to be a kid first, and like all kids, adds value to our lives and the lives of others.”

  ---

Appendix A: FAQ

1. What tests can I use with a student who is blind or visually impaired?

• Cognitive and Processing Subtests to Consider for Assessing Students with Visual Impairments (CSB) This FAQ document provides information about primarily auditorily administered subtests to consider when testing using a Cattell–Horn–Carroll (CHC) cross-battery method (XBA) as described by Flanagan, Alfonso, and Ortiz (2014). This is a live document, and more subtests will be added. Most subtests were classified based on information from Essentials of Cross-Battery Assessment, 3rd Edition (Flanagan, Ortiz, & Alfonso, 2013).

“The XBA approach often results in a more psychometrically stable and complete picture of cognitive abilities than that which can be obtained by a single battery. This approach may aid examiners of children with VI/B in selecting test instruments, as subtests from different batteries can be administered according to both their contributions to the CHC broad abilities and their level of appropriateness for these children.” (Decker et al., 2018, p. 670)

• Please review the Assessment Planning Considerations section before exploring the subtest tables.

• Comprehension/Knowledge (Gc)
• Fluid Reasoning (Gf)
• Short-Term Memory (Gsm) - Memory Span (MS)
• Short-Term Working Memory (Gwm)
• Long-Term Retrieval (Glr)
• Long-Term Retrieval (Glr) - Ideational Fluency (FI)
• Auditory Processing (Ga)
• Tests Available in Braille and/or Large Print
• Tests and Rating Scale Manuals With VI Clinical Samples or VI Considerations 
• Alternative Ways to Look at Cognition - Tools Created or Adapted for Individuals with VI
• Alternative Ways to Look at Cognition - Tools Not Adapted for Individuals with VI

• Please note that the California Department of Education does not endorse the use of any product. Also, this appendix is not intended to provide a comprehensive list of assessment tools; it is a sample list of assessment tools that professionals may wish to consider using when assessing students with visual impairments.

Comprehension/Knowledge (Gc)

Fluid Reasoning (Gf)

Short-Term Memory (Gsm) - Memory Span (MS)

Short-Term Working Memory (Gwm)

Long-Term Retrieval (Glr)

Long-Term Retrieval (Glr) - Ideational Fluency (FI)

Auditory Processing (Ga)

Tests Available in Braille and Large Print

Boehm-3

• Boehm-3 Preschool Tactile Edition and Big Picture Kits are available on APH and measure 26 basic concepts relevant to the preschool and early childhood curriculum. This test helps identify children who lack understanding in basic relational concepts so you can provide intervention sooner, increasing their chance of success in school. Each concept is tested twice, to verify the child’s understanding. The Boehm-3 Preschool has two age levels:

• 3 years 0 months to 3 years 11 months
• 4 years 0 months to 5 years 11 months

• Boehm-3: Test of Basic Concepts, Third Edition: K-2 Tactile Edition and Big Picture Kit also are available for students in kindergarten to 2nd grade and assess the student’s understanding of 50 basic concepts identified as key elements for instruction and needed for problem solving, classroom routines, and activities. Results will identify students who may need targeted instruction on some of these basic concepts, while also identifying students who may be “at risk” and need a referral for additional testing.
• Full reliability and validity data for children without visual impairment can be found in the Examiner’s Manual for the original version but does not apply to these adaptations.
• Everything needed to administer the test to children with visual impairments is included in these kits.
• Consider whether the student is familiar with tactile graphics.
• The Boehm-3 K-2 Big Picture, Boehm-3 K-2 Tactile, and Boehm-3 Preschool Big Picture protocols include English and Spanish instructions while the Boehm-3 Preschool Tactile protocols are in English.

• NOTE: Pearson maintains the Boehm-3 Preschool Examiner’s Manual and Boehm-3 Examiner’s Manual on their website.

Brigance Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills II (CIBS II)

• APH released the adapted criterion-referenced versions of the Brigance CIBS II in Uncontracted Braille, Contracted Braille, and Large Print in 2022. The braille adaptations are in UEB with Nemeth.
• “This product is a widely used academic assessment that has been adapted for the use of learners with limited or no vision. The assessment has a series of subtests that capture a learner’s ability to complete math and reading/English Language Arts (ELA) exercises. It is intended for use as a standalone, one-time assessment to measure the learner’s abilities on a given day, or as a progress monitoring assessment to track the learner’s growth over time” (APH, 2022).
• For grade levels K - 9
• The original Brigance CIBS II (Green) was created in 2010, including a criterion-referenced version and a standardized, norm-referenced version. Curriculum Associates stopped selling the standardized version in 2020 due to its age (T. Pica, personal communication, September 28, 2022).
• The original version of the Brigance CIBS II is needed and can be purchased from Curriculum Associates. The CIBS II examiner’s manual will no longer be available for purchase once they sell out of their limited inventory.
• Here are some examples of items that we regularly use for the braille adaptation of the Brigance CIBS-II.

KeyMath-3 Braille Student Kit (Uncontracted) and KeyMath-3 Braille Student Kit (Contracted) 

• Age range: 4:6 - 21:11  
• A standard KeyMath-3 Diagnostic Assessment kit is needed as the administration manual is not included.
• KeyMath-3 Braille Teacher Guides for Student Braille Kit 
• The uncontracted and contracted braille adaptations are available in UEB with Nemeth while the UEB with UEB math/science technical braille code supplement is available only in contracted form.
• KeyMath-3 Large Print Kit: In addition to the braille kits, a Large Print Kit is available for the KeyMath-3. A standard KeyMath-3 Diagnostic Assessment kit is needed as the administration manual is not included.

Woodcock-Johnson IV (WJ IV): Adapted for Braille Readers

• Age range: 2 - 90+
• The WJ IV braille is available in contracted and uncontracted UEB with Nemeth and UEB Math/Science.
• The braille adaptation consists of tests which were able to be adapted for braille readers from each of the three batteries: Tests of Achievement (Standard and Extended), Tests of Cognitive Abilities (Standard and Extended), and Oral Language.
• Examiners must meet the qualifications for administering this assessment and have purchased the publisher materials that are referenced in the braille adaptation. Publisher materials must be ordered directly from Riverside Insights. A standard version of the WJ IV is necessary as materials like the audio files for subtest administration are not included in the Adapted Braille version. Ordering the WJ IV Complete Battery Plus Achievement A, Cognitive, and Oral Language will provide all materials needed for administration of the braille and large print editions.
• The braille adaptation of the WJ IV must be administered and interpreted by an examiner team that includes a qualified primary examiner who is competent in administering the WJ IV to sighted individuals and an ancillary examiner who is competent in braille, Nemeth, and impacts of visual impairment on development and functioning (Jaffe, 2017). Per the Woodcock-Johnson IV Braille Adaptation Administration Guide and Resource Manual, "the examiners should have completed at least two practice administrations with individuals who are blind before administering the WJ IV-Braille for the purpose of using the scores and interpreting the results" (Jaffe, 2017, p. 8).
• The braille adaptation includes some modifications (e.g., tactile display), substitutions, and omission of items. The adapted versions of the tests use the general normative sample; however, "scoring tables and scoring software were developed specifically for the WJ IV - Braille, factoring in new clusters and item deletions and substitutions" (Jaffe, 2017, p. 27). Use the scoring software provided on the USB stick that comes with the Braille Adaptation kit.
• Review the webinar Using a Team Approach in Evaluating Students w/ Visual Impairments Using  WJ-IV Braille Adaptation and accompanying handout by Lynne Jaffe, Ph.D., Educational Consultant (2022).
• Woodcock-Johnson IV: Large Print Edition: Similar to the Braille Adaptation kit, the Large Print Edition does not include all the materials needed for administration. A standard version of the WJ IV is needed.

WRAT5 Student Braille (UEB and Nemeth) Books

• A standard Wide Range Achievement Test, Fifth Edition kit is needed as all of the materials needed for administration are not included in the Student Braille Books.
• Ages 5 to 85+
• The blue and green forms are available in the adapted kits for the WRAT5.
• WRAT5 - Large Print: Similarly, a standard WRAT5 kit is needed for administration along with the large print student books.
• “The WRAT5 has not been normed to the VI population. The validity is largely maintained due to the process in which the adaptation was done. Print based questions were directly reproduced in either braille or large print. For questions that included visual components, best efforts, guided by BANA rules for tactile graphics, were made to maintain the integrity of the questions. Questions that could not be meaningfully converted to tactile graphics were removed” (L. Randles, personal communication/online chat, February 24, 2022).

Aprenda: La Prueba de Logros en Español, Tercera edición (Aprenda 3)

• Per the Aprenda 3 website, this is an academic achievement test for Spanish-speaking students in K-12 assessing language, reading, math, science, and social studies.
• We have not used this test; however, the website notes under product details that braille and large-print versions are available.
• APH did not adapt these materials.

Acadience Learning (DIBELS Math) in braille and Acadience Reading in large print and braille

• Acadience Math is a universal screening and progress monitoring assessment that measures the acquisition of math skills from kindergarten through sixth grade. Acadience Math includes measures for early numeracy, computation, and problem solving.
• Acadience Reading is a universal screening and progress monitoring assessment that measures the acquisition of early literacy skills from kindergarten through sixth grade. Acadience Reading measures include first sound fluency, letter naming fluency, phoneme segmentation fluency, nonsense word fluency, oral reading fluency, and reading comprehension maze passages.
• If you would like information on Braille Acadience Math or Reading K-6 materials, please contact them at info@acadiencelearning.org. They can send order forms for paper copies of contracted and uncontracted braille reading benchmark materials and paper copies of uncontracted and contracted UEB and Nemeth math benchmark materials. Soft copies of the materials for your own embossing (.brf files) are not available at this time.
• Large print Acadience Reading K-6 (digital administration or paper/pencil administration) progress monitoring and benchmark materials are freely available for download.
• We have not used these universal screening and progress monitoring assessments.
• APH did not adapt these materials.

FastBridge Assessments in braille and large print

• FastBridge Assessments are universal screening and progress monitoring assessments for reading and math.
• “The selection of which assessments to convert to braille was determined through careful examination of each subtest or test. Specifically, the properties and task demands of each assessment were considered in relation to whether braille conversion would substantially change the task in ways inconsistent with the original task designs. In general, assessments with letters, words, and numbers could be read in braille form and yield answers on par with the visual forms converted. Those assessments with pictures or other graphics were not converted because braille forms are not available, or the braille version would include a fundamentally different task, were not converted.” (FastBridge, 2023, para. 1)
• Assessments available in braille include:

• earlyReading: word blending, word segmenting, letter names, letter sounds, nonsense words, decodable words, sight words-50, and sight words-150
• CBMreading: all levels 1-8
• earlyMath: numeral identification-K, numeral identification-1, composing counting objects, number sequence-K (oral subtest), number sequence-1 (oral subtest), quantity discrimination-least, quantity discrimination-most, verbal addition (oral subtest), verbal subtraction (oral subtest)
• CBMmath Process: grade 2-6 general outcome measures

• Braille materials are transcribed and included for FastBridge customers as downloadable .brf files for use with a braille embosser.
• Per their Special Accommodations article, FASTBridge provides some accommodations (e.g., text magnification and sound amplification).
• The FastBridge assessment norms were not established with braille, text magnification, or other accommodations, so the results need to be interpreted within that context.
• We have not used this universal screening and progress monitoring assessments.
• APH did not adapt these materials.

California Spanish Assessment (CSA) in braille and large print

• The California Spanish Assessment (CSA) is part of the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP) System from the California Department of Education.
• The assessment measures literacy in Spanish language arts and is for native Spanish speakers as well as those who are learning Spanish as an additional language.
• The California Student Assessment Accessibility sheet indicates that the test is available in embossed and refreshable braille and adjustable print size.
• Spanish braille should show up correctly on a refreshable braille display and in .brf files.
• A Spanish JAWS voice profile needs to be downloaded in order for JAWS to read the Spanish portions correctly.
• We have not used this test but have connected with the test publisher to confirm the availability of braille for this assessment.
• APH did not adapt these materials.

Tests and Rating Scale Manuals With VI Clinical Samples or VI Considerations

Neuropsychological Assessment of Adults with Visual Impairments (NAAVI)

• The NAAVI was created to assess individuals with visual impairments ages 16 to 70 and older (Gallagher & Burnham, 2017).
• The main book includes an informative overview of the neuropsychological evaluation of blind and low vision adults in 27 chapters. The tests and administration manual are in the appendix book.
• The NAAVI includes 10 subtests: Auditory Cancellation Test, Michigan Mathematics Test for the Blind, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Tactual Formboard Test, Pattern of Search Test, Adapted Token Test, Pattern Board Test, Digital Symbol, Tactile Block Design, and Object Assembly.
• Although normative data was collected for the NAAVI, the sample was limited to individuals in Michigan. While practitioners may cautiously reference the normative information, the test provides valuable clinical data about the examinee's neuropsychological skills, including executive functioning, reasoning, spatial processing, and memory.
• Performance on the NAAVI can help to inform recommendations for academics and vocational needs.

Developmental Profile 4 (DP-4)

• The DP-4 measures the developmental and functional skills of individuals from birth to age 21 years, 11 months in the domains of physical, adaptive behavior, social-emotional, cognitive, and communication development.
• The manual notes,

• “In addition to the standardization samples, a clinical validation sample was collected. This sample consisted of 348 children with a clinical diagnosis of autism, intellectual disability, developmental disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), hearing impairment, learning disability, mood disorder, speech/language impairment, visual impairment, physical disability, or other disability.” (Alpern, 2021, p. 4)

• In the manual, a case example involving vision (that was corrected) is on page 43, and information about the clinical sample with visual impairments is on pages 81 and 82.

Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 3rd Edition (Vineland-3)

• The Vineland-3 measures adaptive behavior for individuals from birth through ages 90+ with the Interview Form and Parent/Caregiver Form and for ages 3 to 21 with the Teacher Form.
• The Vineland-3 includes individuals with visual impairments in the clinical samples and provides some considerations.
• The manual notes,

• “some individuals with motor or sensory impairments use assistive technology for reading and/or writing. Such technology includes a variety of alternative input devices (e.g., specialized keyboards) that, along with a computer, are used instead of handwriting. Audiobooks and screen readers provide voice-based (rather than print-based) reading for those with visual impairments. These ways of reading and writing should be counted the same as typical reading and writing when scoring items in the Written subdomain, as well as in other subdomains that include items that pertain to reading and writing.” (Sparrow et al., 2016, p. 45)

• Information about the clinical sample with visual impairments can be found on pages 156, 170, 172, 178, 192, 194, 203, 214, and 216 of the manual.

Tests of Dyslexia (TOD)

• The Tests of Dyslexia provide comprehensive dyslexia assessment, including reading, spelling, linguistic processing, vocabulary, reasoning, and other factors that may contribute to a diagnosis of dyslexia for individuals ages 5 years, 0 months to 89 years, 0 months.
• The TOD included individuals with visual impairment in the clinical sample; however, the manual notes that “[i]ndividuals who were visually impaired or deaf/hard of hearing all had interventions (e.g., special glasses, hearing aids) that allowed them to complete the TOD tests with the standardized administration procedures” (Mather et al., 2024, p. 178).

Alternative Ways to Look at Cognition - Tools Created or Adapted for Individuals with VI

The following developmental assessments require items to be gathered in order to administer them. Here are some examples of materials.

The Oregon Project for Preschool Children who Are Blind or Visually Impaired, Seventh Edition (2024)

• The Oregon Project Skills Inventory is a criterion-referenced assessment tool with behavioral statements in developmental sequence from birth to 6 years in the areas of cognition, language, social, vision, compensatory, self-help, fine motor, and gross motor.
• The skills inventory includes over 800 behavioral statements.
• This seventh edition is fully online, including the manual, skills inventory assessment, and curriculum. Printable skill checklists and teaching activities are available on the online platform.
• Teacher accounts are free, but student accounts need to be purchased to access the Oregon Project materials. Licenses are $65 per student.
• Evaluation teams may choose to administer the Oregon Project together as a team or select different portions for different specialists to administer and collaborate in the interpretation and reporting of the student’s performance. It does not give a score in terms of developmental months but shows the acquisition of specific skills.
• The Oregon Project also includes a curriculum designed to be used by parents, teachers, vision specialists, or counselors in the home or in the classroom setting.
• Many items must be collected in order to administer the test. The manual provides a list of suggestions for materials.

2024 INSITE Checklist Instructional Manual: Assessment of Developmental Skills for Children with Sensory Impairments and Additional Disabilities, Third Edition (INSITE-3)

• This manual contains the INSITE Developmental Checklist and instructions for scoring and reporting. The INSITE Checklist assesses gross motor, fine motor, self-help, cognition, social, emotional, communication, vision, auditory, and tactile development (Dennison & Watkins, 2024).

• Intended for use with children with sensory impairments and additional disabilities ages 0-6.
• Many items must be collected in order to administer the test. The manual provides a list of suggestions for materials. Here are some photos of materials we have used for our play-based assessments.
• The 2024 INSITE Developmental Checklist – Individual Test Booklet includes the INSITE Checklist itself, quick instructions for use, and scoring and reporting forms. A downloadable version is available.

Alternative Ways to Look at Cognition - Tools Not Adapted for Individuals with VI

While these tools were not created or adapted for students with visual impairments, they can be adapted for assessing students with visual impairments.

Kerr Meyerson Assessment of Basic Learning Abilities, Revised (ABLA-R)

• The link is for the free second edition of the self instruction manual for the ABLA-R.
• This informal developmental assessment measures how a student learns to perform the position, visual, and auditory discriminations involved in many daily tasks.
• The ABLA-R is composed of six levels; each level only requires that a student be able to put an item into a container.
• The ABLA-R is an useful tool for assessing and teaching many individuals with profound, severe, or moderate intellectual disabilities, and for many children with autism.

Southern California Ordinal Scales of Development 

• Although this criterion referenced test was originally published in 1977, practitioners still use the SCOSD to administer Piagetian tasks to assess all levels of development from sensorimotor through formal operations. Tasks can be adapted to accommodate students' visual impairments and provide meaningful data.
• A Guide to the Theory, Administration, and Interpretation Of the Southern California Ordinal Scales of Development Cognition-Second Edition was published in 2018 and has a preview on Google Books.

Learning Principles Checklist 

• This brief informal checklist looks at various learning principles including communication, efficiency, memory, planning, recognition, spatial orientation, vocabulary, attention, flexibility, frustration tolerance, motivation, task perseverance, and more.

2. Can I adapt any test into braille?

No. Per Title 17 of the U.S. Code § 121 - Limitations on exclusive rights: Reproduction for blind or other people with disabilities,

"(a) Notwithstanding the provisions of section 106, it is not an infringement of copyright for an authorized entity to reproduce or to distribute in the United States copies or phonorecords of a previously published literary work or of a previously published musical work that has been fixed in the form of text or notation if such copies or phonorecords are reproduced or distributed in accessible formats exclusively for use by eligible persons.

(b)

(1) Copies or phonorecords to which this section applies shall—

(A) not be reproduced or distributed in the United States in a format other than an accessible format exclusively for use by eligible persons;

(B) bear a notice that any further reproduction or distribution in a format other than an accessible format is an infringement; and

(C) include a copyright notice identifying the copyright owner and the date of the original publication.

(2) The provisions of this subsection shall not apply to standardized, secure, or norm-referenced tests and related testing material, or to computer programs, except the portions thereof that are in conventional human language (including descriptions of pictorial works) and displayed to users in the ordinary course of using the computer programs" (Copyright Law of the United States and Related Laws Contained in Title 17 of the United States Code, 2021, pp. 136-137).

3. Can a student qualify under Visual Impairment and Specific Learning Disability?

• Having a visual impairment does not preclude eligibility under Specific Learning Disability additionally if the education code criteria are met.

• “Specific learning disabilities do not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of intellectual disability, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage” (California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1, Article 3.1, § 3030. Eligibility Criteria).
• This does not imply that the IEP team should automatically dismiss the possibility of SLD eligibility if there is the presence of any of these exclusionary factors. It is possible for one or more of these factors to impact the student’s educational progress while still having a learning disability. The IEP team needs to gauge how much the exclusionary factors affect the student’s performance.
• Students with visual impairments may have additional challenges with learning that have manifested for reasons beyond or were not primarily caused by their visual impairment.

• Per Whittaker & Ortiz (2019) in their white paper “What a Specific Learning Disability is Not: Examining Exclusionary Factors” for the National Center for Learning Disabilities,

• “SLD can coexist with limited English proficiency as well disabilities such as sensory impairments, motor difficulties, emotional problems, and more. Any such factors may well be seen as contributory to the observed learning problems in the classroom and do not rule out a learning disability as long as they are not the primary reason for such difficulties.” (p. 6)

• Unfortunately, there is a common misconception that students with visual impairments cannot be considered for special education eligibility under the category of specific learning disabilities; the truth is that students with visual impairments can also have specific learning disabilities. The Texas Educational Agency (2022) provided guidance in Sensory Impairments and Specific Learning Disabilities, such as the following excerpt.

• “A common misconception is that the mere presence of a sensory impairment automatically rules out specific learning disability. This is not true. A sensory impairment can coexist with a specific learning disability (including dyslexia and related disorders). Admission, Review and Dismissal (ARD) committees need to consider this possibility, particularly when students’ academic skills are not progressing as expected despite receiving adequate instruction and appropriate supports and services to meet the needs that result from the sensory impairment. It may be that the sensory impairment does not fully explain the student’s current academic underachievement. For some students, the sensory impairment may be a contributing factor but is not what is primarily causing the observed academic underachievement. For these students, a specific learning disability may also be present.” (p.1)

• Effects of a learning disability can show up in braille literacy. It is important to tease out if the student has a learning disability or difficulty with the braille code due to other reasons, such as limited exposure to braille outside of VI sessions or limited frequency or duration of braille sessions with a qualified instructor (e.g., TSVI).
• Consider whether the student is experiencing significant educational needs despite appropriate access provided through accommodations for vision loss.
• When conducting a record review and examining previous test results for potential learning disabilities, review the documented adaptations and modifications during standardized testing and consider if they were appropriate. Consider if a TSVI was involved in the evaluation.
• Consider whether the student was provided appropriate educational experiences.

• Has the student had consistent attendance? Consider the impact of multiple absences due to medical procedures or illness.
• Were the recommendations from the TSVI’s functional vision assessment (FVA) and learning media assessment (LMA) implemented consistently and with fidelity?
• Does the historical data from records review indicate consistent challenges in specific academic areas that do not appear to be related to changes in learning medium or significant changes in vision?
• How did the student respond to academic interventions? What was the frequency and duration of interventions? Was the student given sufficient opportunity to benefit from applied interventions? Were the interventions appropriately matched to the student’s needs?

• Similar to other students with learning disabilities, there should be a profile of specific strengths and weaknesses. If a profile of strengths and weaknesses is not present, consider if other disabilities may be contributing to the learning challenges, such as behavioral challenges, emotional disturbance, or intellectual disability.
• The evaluation should include review of work samples, interviews with multiple sources, and observational data from multiple settings that corroborate challenges that are characteristic of learning disabilities. Testing is only a part of a comprehensive evaluation.
• Marnee Loftin (2021) recorded a great quick series of videos for the National Center on Improving Literacy, as sponsored by the US Office of Elementary and Secondary Education and the Office of Special Education. Check them out at Visual Impairment and Dyslexia Video Series | National Center on Improving Literacy. Topics covered include:

• Can students with visual impairments have dyslexia?
• How would someone evaluate for the presence of dyslexia in a student with visual impairment?
• What are some of the factors that impact the development of reading skills in students with visual impairments?
• What are some signs a student with visual impairment may need an evaluation for dyslexia?
• What types of intervention strategies are useful for students with visual impairments?

4. Is a medical eye report (e.g., optometry or ophthalmology report) needed for special education eligibility under VI?

Although reviewing a recent ophthalmological or optometrist report is highly recommended and considered best practice for determining service delivery, federal and state eligibility regulations for special education do not require medical documentation. If a district states that it is mandatory, then the district is financially responsible. Please refer to OSEP 17-05 Policy Letter - Eligibility Determinations for Children Suspected of Having a Visual Impairment Including Blindness under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.

“There is nothing in the IDEA or the Part B regulations that would prevent a public agency from obtaining a medical diagnosis prior to determining whether the child has a particular disability, and the educational needs of the child. Also, there is nothing in the IDEA or the Part B regulations that would prohibit a State from requiring that a medical diagnosis be obtained for purposes of determining whether a child has a particular disability, provided the medical diagnosis is obtained at public expense and at no cost to the parents, and is not used as the sole criterion for determining an appropriate educational program for the child. Further, if a State requires a medical diagnosis consistent with the above criteria, such a requirement exceeds the requirements of Part B of the IDEA. Under 34 CFR §300.199(a)(2), the State would be required to identify in writing to the LEAs located in the State, and to the Secretary, that such rule, regulation, or policy is a State-imposed requirement that is not required by Part B of the IDEA and Federal regulations” (Ryder, 2017, pp. 3-4).

5. Should we use person-first versus identity-first language in our evaluation reports? What terms are considered inclusive?

• Person-First Language

• Emphasizes the person instead of the disability
• Examples: person who is blind, student with low vision, child with autism

• Identity-First Language

• Promotes claiming and celebrating disabilities
• Examples: blind person, low vision student, Autistic child

• Both ways were intended to provide respect and dignity.
• CSB Assessment Center stance: Use the terminology that is preferred by the person you are addressing.
• American Psychological Association's Inclusive Language Guide, Second Edition (APA, 2023)

• “Authors who write about identity are encouraged to use terms and descriptions that both honor and explain person-first and identity-first perspectives. Language should be selected with the understanding that the individual’s preference supersedes matters of style” (p. 9).
• “Description of blind people or people who are visually impaired

• Terms to Avoid:

• Person with blindness
• Visually challenged person
• Visually impaired person
• Vision-impaired person
• Person who is visually impaired
• Person who is vision paired
• Sight-challenged person

• Suggested Alternative:

• blind person
• person who is blind
• person with low vision

• Comment

• People who have complete or almost complete loss of sight may be referred to as ‘blind.’ Other terms are acceptable for those with a vision-based disability.
• Some people may object to the term ‘visually impaired’ because of the negative connotation of the word ‘impaired.’ The use of such terms is complex, often culturally bound, and deeply personal. If you are uncertain about how someone identifies, it is recommended that you ask what identity-first or person-first terms they prefer (e.g. ‘blind’ or ‘blind person’ vs. ‘a person with blindness’).” (p. 17)

5. How can I find support when I have questions about an evaluation for a student with visual impairments?

• Beyond reviewing the resources gathered in this document, you can contact the California School for the Blind Assessment Center Team to request a consultation if you are serving a student who resides in California.
• Consider asking your vision specialists (TSVI or O&M) to post your specific questions to the Braille-N-Teach listserv.
• In 2022, the National Association of School Psychologists and their Board of Directors approved the creation of a new Interest Group called BVIPsych: School Psychology Services for Students Who Are Blind or Visually Impaired. NASP's recognition of the need to support students who are blind or have low vision is a wonderful step forward for the field. If you are a member of NASP, please consider joining the BVIPsych Interest Group.
• BVIPsych is an interactive listserv for school psychologists serving students who are blind or visually impaired. This Google Group forum offers a space to share resources and support one another, as the group strives to strengthen clinical skills and practices to assure quality assessments, interventions, and support services.

6. Do students with convergence insufficiency qualify for special education services under the eligibility category of Visual Impairment? Do TSVIs provide vision therapy?

Response from the Field to OSEP Memo on Eligibility from the American Council of the Blind; American Council of the Blind of New York, Inc.; American Foundation for the Blind; Association for the Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired (AER); Central Texas Professionals for the Visually Impaired; Conference of Educational Administrators of Schools and Programs for the Deaf; Hadley Institute for the Blind and Visually Impaired; National Family Association for Deaf-Blind; New Jersey Consortium on Deaf-blindness; New York Institute for Special Education (NYISE); Pennsylvania Partnership for the Deafblind (PPDB); Perkins School for the Blind; St. Joseph's School for the Blind; Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired; University of Arizona, Visual Impairments Specialization Program; Virginia AER; and VISIONS/Services for the Blind and Visually Impaired (2017):

“In reading the memorandum, we are reminded of two basic principles of IDEA:

1. Eligibility for special education is individualized and based on evaluation of educational need, not diagnoses or medical conditions.
2. Services and supports for students in special education are individualized and based on evaluation and assessment, not diagnoses or medical conditions nor the categories or labels used to determine eligibility.

As recommended in this memo, we will continue to support the individualized provision of a range of special education services for children with all types of educationally significant visual conditions, regardless of diagnoses, including children with neurological, cortical, and/or cerebral visual impairments, as well as children with issues of binocularity and convergence, which, even after correction, adversely impact their access to education…

As clearly described in a recent position paper [1] from the Low Vision Rehabilitation Division of the Association for the Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired, TSVIs are educational professionals and not therapists; the provision of vision therapy should be supervised by a doctor and further, is outside the TSVIs' scope of professional practice.

Knowing that eligibility does not determine services, should a student with a binocular vision disorder be evaluated and found eligible for special education, TSVIs already provide and will continue to provide important evaluation and supports, including classroom accommodations and direct instruction if necessary.” (para. 3 - 7)

7. What are some red flags that I should be aware of to consider making a referral for a VI services evaluation?

• Although a student may pass a school vision screening, school vision screenings often will not identify if a student has visual difficulties beyond acuity or color perception. Visual acuity and color perception do not tell the whole story about potential visual impairments. If potential signs of a visual impairment are present, a referral to an optometrist or ophthalmologist for a visual exam should be made. A visual examination can include distance and near acuity, eye movement, focusing, visual field, eye-hand coordination, and other visual features.

• Some vision conditions are degenerative with vision loss beginning in adolescence.
• Retinitis pigmentosa is a degenerative eye condition that results in loss of peripheral vision. Effects of vision loss do not typically begin until adolescence or early adulthood. Because vision deteriorates slowly over time and central visual acuity typically remains intact, a student may be unaware that they have a visual impairment and/or are losing side vision.

• Students with a visual impairment may be observed:

• Bumping into people/objects on their sides
• Not making eye contact
• Looking down at their feet when walking
• Slowing down when changing between light and dim environments (e.g., transitioning from a shaded area or entering a dark classroom)
• Tripping over curbs
• Having a fear of stairs
• Excessively squinting, blinking, or eye rubbing
• Closing an eye, head tilting, or bringing materials very close to the face when reading or doing close visual work
• Losing place on page while reading
• Challenges with judging distances, underreaching or overreaching for items

Also, refer to Appendix B: CVI Characteristics and Resources to learn about common characteristics of individuals with CVI, which is the leading cause of VI in children. Some medical conditions associated with CVI include:

• Asphyxia (drowning, SIDS, choking, birth trauma), resulting condition may be hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE)
• Premature birth
• Stroke, Cerebral Vascular Accident (CVA)
• Periventricular Leukomalacia (PLV)
• Cranial infection that are congenital or acquired (TORCH, CMV, toxoplasmosis, rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes/HIV, meningitis, Group B Strep)
• Brain tumor
• Congenital brain malformations
• Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
• Intraventricular hemorrhage, particularly grades III and IV
• Chromosomal disorders

8. Are TSVI and O&M goals aligned with the California Common Core State Standards?

• Yes!
• Check out CSB’s webinar Importance of Aligning VI & O&M Goals with Common Core State Standards | Tuesday Tea (2020). Presentation slides and additional resources are available in the YouTube description box.

9. Are there COVID-19 related evaluation considerations?

Although COVID-19 Resources on CASPOnline is not VI specific, CASP has created many useful resources relating to evaluation and supports during COVID-19.

10. How are GATE (gifted and talented education) evaluations conducted for students who have visual impairments?

GATE testing/criteria varies district to district. Often standardized nonverbal intelligence tests are utilized, which are composed of many visual tasks. In any evaluation process involving a student with visual impairments, collaboration among the evaluators and the TSVI is key. Similar to any evaluation process, it would be best practices to not rely solely on a standardized test score to make a decision.

In Making Evaluation Meaningful: Determining Additional Eligibilities and Appropriate Instructional Strategies for Students with Blindness and Visual Impairment, 2nd Edition, Marnee Loftin (2022) provides a list of “possible characteristics of gifted and talented students with visual impairments. Students will exhibit higher levels of these characteristics in comparison to other students

• Eagerness to learn new concepts
• Curiosity about exploring new environments
• Eagerness to learn exploration of new environments
• Eagerness to experience new situations
• Attempts to problem-solve difficulties independently
• Problem-solves difficulties independently
• Recognizes problems
• Perceptive to the needs of other individuals
• Ability to interact appropriately
• Skilled in interacting [with] others
• Understands concepts and applies to new situations
• Inner motivation for learning
• Understands nuances of humor
• Understands abstract concepts” (p. 197)

The Ohio Guidelines for Working with Students Who are Blind or Visually Impaired states, "[c]ommon characteristics of gifted students with visual impairments include:

• Fast rate of learning;
• Superior memory;
• Superior verbal communication skills and vocabulary;
• Advanced problem-solving skills;
• Creative production or thought that may progress more slowly than sighted students in some academic areas;
• Ease in learning braille;
• Great persistence and commitment to tasks;
• Motivation to know;
• Sometimes slower rate of cognitive development than sighted students;
• Excellent ability to concentrate" (Mauro & Morris, 2015, p. 34)

In The Gifted and Talented Student Who is Also Blind or Has Low Vision, Marnee Loftin addresses assessments for gifted and talented programs in the section titled “Are these assessments appropriate for the student with blindness or low vision?” (n.d., para. 1-4).

“There are accommodations available for both intelligence and achievement tests that will make them accessible for students with blindness and low vision.  However, it is important that these instruments be administered according to best practice guidelines. The American Printing House for the Blind is a resource in gathering information about best practice guidelines as well as for purchasing appropriate instruments.

An assessment that deals with more subjective behaviors on rating scales as well as demonstrating leadership, creative, or artistic abilities may be a little more challenging. Attempts to choose appropriate formal instruments in this area should be carefully coordinated with the TSVI.

In an effort to increase the diversity of the students in the gifted and talented programs, there has been an emphasis on choosing non-verbal tests as measures both of intelligence and creative skills. This type of instrument is not appropriate for a student with any type of visual impairment. It is important that other instruments be chosen that will measure these skills in a way that is accessible for students with blindness or low vision.

The opportunity to present specific projects that speak to creativity offers many excellent opportunities for the student with BLV.  As the year progresses, it will be important to maintain copies of different work that shows the creativity of the student.  Musical performances, poetry, short stories, original games, novel “languages,” are all projects that have been submitted successfully by students who are BLV.  These show initiative, creativity, and a flair for problem solving that is often more successful than making accommodations on formal instruments of assessment.”

“Education of Students who are Gifted and Visually Impaired: A Position Paper of the Division on Visual Impairments Council of Exceptional Children” provides recommendations for identifying students with visual impairments who also are gifted. The authors recommend that “[i]n addition to standardized tests, tools for identifying students who are gifted and visually impaired might include examination of students’ problem-solving abilities and strategies, documentation of creative compensatory strategies for coping with their visual impairments, student-developed portfolios reflecting work done both at home and at school, parent interviews and/or journals, and teacher interviews” (Omdal et al., n.d., p. 2).

Evaluating Children With Visual Impairments For Eligibility In Talented And Gifted Programs from TSBVI is another good resource; the author similarly recommends that “[a]s with any other student, test scores should not be the sole determining factor in selecting students for TAG [talented and gifted] programs, and samples of school work, examples of giftedness, and other informal or subjective measures of creativity must be used. Statements from teachers and parents or other persons who know the child well should also be used” (Bulla, 2002, para. 2).

11. Who can administer standardized tests?

• Special Needs Assessments: Riverside (WJ-IV publisher) User Qualifications Guide
• Qualifications Policy: from Pearson, another large publisher of tests (including KeyMath-3 Diagnostic Assessment and KTEA-3 Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement 3rd Ed, which both require a B level qualification).

Appendix B: CVI Characteristics and Resources

Individuals with Cerebral/Cortical Visual Impairment (CVI) exhibit distinct visual behaviors. Although the number and type of characteristics acknowledged by major theorists vary, there is overlap in commonly recognized and evaluated characteristics.

Read the article "Understanding the CVI Visual Behaviors" (CVI Now, Perkins School for the Blind, n.d.) for an integrated view of key visual behaviors recognized by major theorists. The following 10 visual characteristics are evaluated with the CVI Range  (Roman-Lantzy, 2018).

• Color preferences: Students with CVI often express a favorite color or a color that they will look at more than other colors.
• Need for movement: Students with CVI often require movement to elicit or sustain their visual attention.
• Visual latency: Latency is the time between when an object is presented and when a child looks.
• Visual field preferences: Students with CVI sometimes prefer or can more easily look at things presented in certain visual fields.
• Difficulty with visual complexity: Students with CVI often have difficulty with complexity. Complexity can be in the object (e.g., lots of visual detail, multiple colors and sounds); in the array (e.g., many objects on a table/floor at once, a visually cluttered background as in a very cluttered room, or a busy backdrop as in a table mat or rug); in the sensory environment (e.g., lots of background noise, trying to do difficult motor tasks while looking at the same time, unstable positioning [especially for children with low muscle tone], when feeling upset or hungry); and in the complexity of human faces themselves. Students with CVI may have difficulty making eye contact or shifting their gaze toward familiar or unfamiliar faces.
• Need for/attraction to light (formerly described as Light Gazing/Non-purposeful Gaze): Students with CVI often stare compulsively into primary light sources or spend a lot of time not looking at anything in particular (non-purposeful gaze).
• Difficulty with distance viewing: Students with CVI often have difficulty with viewing at a distance. Distance is a function of complexity, because the further away the eyes are from a target, the more other visual targets are in the array (e.g., when 6” away from an object, only the object is in view; when 6’ from that object, many other items are likely to be in the array).
• Atypical visual reflexes: Students with CVI may have atypical visual reflexes, which can resolve as the child’s functional vision improves. These reflexes are blink to touch and blink to threat (usually resolved in this order); a student with CVI may have absent, latent, or inconsistent reflexes.
• Difficulty with visual novelty: Students with CVI often look at familiar and favorite toys better than novel ones because they have learned to look at those things.
• Difficulty with visually guided reach: Students with CVI often have trouble using their eyes and hands together, and may exhibit a variety of look—look away—touch/reach behaviors.

CVI Resources

• To learn more about CVI, take the free CVI Self-Paced Online Course (CSB), which provides information about an introduction to CVI, causes of CVI, characteristics of CVI, CVI screening tools, CVI assessment, interviews, CVI Range, CVI Assessment Kit, and report writing. Class code: 265c263
• There are many resources available about Cerebral/Cortical Visual Impairment. Our CVI Resources list includes our favorites and will enable you to begin your own search for what works best for you and your student.

Appendix C: VI Plus Resources

Autism & VI

Autism and VI overlapping behaviors.

• Sensory-seeking behaviors (e.g., eye pressing, rocking, head shaking, spinning, etc.)
• Repetitive behaviors
• Difficulty making friends; a preference for adult interactions
• Limited and perseverative topics and interests
• Repeated questioning, echolalia, and other repetitive language
• Body awareness/proximity difficulties
• Difficulty with facial expressions and body language
• Atypical posture

Why the overlap?

• Sensory seeking

• VI students may seek vestibular input like spinning and swinging.
• Eye pressing gives strong sensory input.

• Repetitive behaviors

• Young blind children often engage in more repetitive play, as imitation play is often late to develop.
• Repetitive actions, like tapping, provide interesting auditory input.

• Challenges with friends

• Adults are more predictable; adults will usually be accepting of limited interests.
• Sighted peers often move fast in both physical play (running) and pretend play.
• Immature play skills cause challenges in forming friendships.
• Full-time one-to-one adult support often impedes social development; adults need to be trained to step back to allow the development of skills and independence.

• Topic perseveration

• Limited life experiences can lead to limited topics of interest.
• Familiar topics provide a sense of safety and control of the conversation.

• Repetitive language

• Questions help determine who is nearby and where they are. Questions also may be the most successful way to initiate conversation. The student may repeat questions over and over.
• “Many students who are blind or visually impaired learn to talk by echoing or copying phrases or sentences even if they do not understand it. They may echo what they just heard, or have delayed echolalia where they repeat language heard earlier in association with a particular subject or event” (Willings, 2019).
• Students with VI often are gestalt learners, and repeat chunks of overheard language in their language learning process.

• Body awareness/proximity

• Students with VI are often not told social expectations about proximity and require specific teaching.
• Students with VI may have the desire to know what a person is holding or playing with → grabbing or getting very close to look at it
• Lack of vision impacts information gained from expression and posture.

• Facial expression/body language

• Not seeing a person’s face or posture can drastically change the information received during a conversation.
• Students with VI may not be aware of what their own body language or facial expressions are communicating.

• Posture

• VI students may often be hunched over, posture their hands or limbs, and do other physical movements that were never explained to them to be atypical.

Autism & VI Resources

• Considerations for the identification of autism spectrum disorder in children with vision or hearing impairment: A critical review of the literature and recommendations for practice (Ludwig et al., 2022) is a handy resource with a table (Table 1) with considerations of behaviors that may be seen in typically developing children with visual impairments, presentation of symptoms of autism in individuals with visual impairments, and special considerations. Ludwig and colleagues provide great recommendations for assessing children with visual impairment or hearing impairment for autism. The full text is available for free.
• Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Children with Visual Impairment and Blindness: A Scoping Review (Stevenson & Tedone, 2024) is a great literature review of 13 articles and includes a discussion of themes from the articles, such as the modification of existing autism assessment tools and creation of new assessment tools for individuals with sensory loss. 
• Observation of Autism spectrum disorder in people with Sensory and Intellectual Disabilities (OASID) is a semi-structured assessment tool that can help in the diagnosis of ASD in people with a moderate to profound intellectual disability combined with visual impairments or deafblindness. The manual (de Vaan et al., 2019) is freely available. Visit Creative Commons to see a copy of the license.  
• Modification and Validation of an Autism Observational Assessment Including ADOS-2® for Use with Children with Visual Impairment (Dale et al., 2024) is an open-access article about the modification of ADOS-2 Module 3 for children with VI. “The modified ADOS-2® (Module 3) provides a potentially valid and reliable assessment tool, with its new scientifically derived diagnostic algorithm and threshold cut-off for identifying children at ‘High risk for ASD’ in this age range. It appears scientifically ‘fit for purpose’ for next stage clinical feasibility testing of the assessment methods. This will potentially lead to an internationally accepted diagnostic ASD assessment methodology for children with VI, in line with those who are typically sighted.” (Dale et al., 2024, Summary section)
• Dr. Terese Pawletko discusses the challenges and history of diagnosing visually impaired children with autism on the Best Together podcast; check out this great episode (Clougherty & Cornwall, 2022).
• Autistic-Like Features in Visually Impaired Children: A Review of Literature and Directions for Future Research provides a great literature review for those who may be interested in research on visual impairment and autism (Molinaro et al., 2020).
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Visual Impairment: Meeting Students’ Learning Needs (Gense & Gense, 2005): 75 pages of the book can be viewed through Google Book’s preview feature. Chapter 4 on assessment contains recommendations for evaluations as well as informal checklists, observation data collection sheets, and rating scales. Autism Spectrum Disorder in Learners with Blindness/Vision Impairments: Comparison of Characteristics (Gense & Gense, 2002) provides a comparison of the development of children with VI, autism and VI, and typical development.
• Intervention Resource: Royal National Institute of Blind People, The National Autistic Society, Brookfields Specialist SEN school, and Sunfield collaborated on the Visual Impairment and Autism Project to create a resource pack about educational practices that support children who have visual impairment and autism. This extensive resource was last updated in 2015.
• The inter-relationships between cerebral visual impairment, autism and intellectual disability (Chokron et al., 2020) is an article that discusses the connections between visual impairment and neurodevelopmental disorders (specifically CVI, ASD, and ID).
• Autism and visual impairment: A review of the literature (Butchart et al., 2017) is a literature review of the prevalence and common behaviors in individuals with visual impairments and autism.

Deafblind Resources

• Cognitive Assessment of Children Who Are Deafblind: Perspectives and Suggestions for Assessments (Nicholas, 2020): “The overall goal of a cognitive assessment is to improve communication, learning, and quality of life for a child who is deafblind. This article will give a brief description and perspective on different evaluation approaches as a basis for reliable cognitive assessments and offer suggestions on how to improve the quality of a cognitive assessment in our clinical practice. The assessor should be aware of the limitations of norm-referenced tests if standardized normative measures are applied to evaluate the cognitive functions of a child who is deafblind. However, if engaging a child with deafblindness in a standardized normative assessment, special considerations and assessment concessions would be required. Furthermore, key issues on how to improve the quality of a cognitive assessment by affording multiple assessment pathways for cognitive assessments will be addressed. Particular attention is given to the following assessment approaches: multi-method, multi-informant assessment, ecological assessment, and dynamic assessment. The use of multiple assessment pathways is necessary to reveal the genuine cognitive abilities and potentials of a child with deafblindness” (para. 1).
• An Assessment Procedure for Students Who Are Deafblind with Significant Additional Disabilities (Blaha & Hurst, 2023): This paper from the Texas Deafblind Project for TSBVI is intended for team working with children who ar deafblind and have co-occuring disabilities (e.g., medically fragile or with orthopedic impairments) that impact their engagement in learning activities. An interview tool and developmental chart with possible impacts from deafblindness are included.
• Psychological assessment of individuals with deafblindness (Einarsson et al., 2020): The Nordic Welfare Centre published this report “to help professional assessing cognition-and thus be able to elaborate adapted strategies so that people with congenital deafblindness can develop their full potential” (p. 5).
• Appropriate Assessment Strategies (National Center on Deaf-Blindness, June 2020): This NCDB Practice Guide outlines essential components of a high-quality assessment of a student who is deafblind.
• A School Psychologist’s Guide to Deafblindness: Identifying & Supporting Students with Combined Hearing-Vision Loss (Wolford, 2021)

• “This guide [from the Ohio Center for Deafblind Education] supports the work of school psychologists by presenting research-based knowledge that informs effective assessment and educational planning for students with deafblindness. It briefly tells what deafblindness is, how many students it affects, how deafblindness impacts students’ learning, and how a school psychologist can help students with combined hearing-vision loss participate fully in their education” (p. 2).
• Appendix B of Ohio Center for Deafblind Education’s document lists tests for possible use for evaluations of students with deafblindness.

• Authentic Assessment (Malloy, 2010): This issue of Practice Perspectives from the National Consortium on Deaf-Blindness discusses authentic assessment, the process of gathering information about a child during typical activities in everyday environments. It emphasizes identifying a child’s strengths, which serve as building blocks for further development and skill acquisition.
• Assessing Communication and Learning in Young Children Who are Deafblind or Who Have Multiple Disabilities (Rowland, 2009): “This guide is intended for all professionals who are responsible for assessing and developing interventions for young children who are deafblind. The contents should also be helpful for families of these children who seek to become actively involved in educational planning. Some families may use the information to better understand their important role in the assessment process, while other families may want to share this guide with professionals who have been asked to evaluate their children. The strategies and materials described here are applicable to many children who have multiple disabilities as well as to children who are deafblind” (p. 3).
• Deafblindness: Educational Service Guidelines (Riggio & McLetchie, 2008) provides guidance on 7 issues relevant to evaluating students with deafblindness in chapter 3.

• “Issue I. Assessors/evaluators should have knowledge of the impact of deafblindness on learning and have the expertise to select, administer and interpret a variety of assessment approaches and data.
• Issue II. Assessors/evaluators should understand and use a variety of communication forms. They should have the ability to interpret and respond to students’ forms, reasons and meanings of communication.
• Issue III. Assessment and evaluation of students who are deafblind should be a collaborative, comprehensive, and ongoing process that includes authentic assessments.
• Issue IV. Assessments and evaluations should occur across a variety of natural environments (home, community, school) to determine students’ functional abilities (communication, self­care, vision and hearing, orientation and mobility).
• Issue V. Evaluation of literacy and numeracy abilities should be included in the assessment process.
• Issue VI. Assessors/evaluators should actively involve families in the assessment process, and give consideration to family cultures and values.
• Issue VII. Assessment/evaluation should lead to ongoing planning and implementation of the individualized education program” (p. 49).

• Open Hands, Open Access (OHOA): Deaf-Blind Intervener Learning Modules (National Center on Deaf-Blindness) provide information on intervention strategies for deafblind students aged 3 to 21 in educational settings and align with the Council for Exceptional Children standards for intervener knowledge and skill competencies. The modules focus on various aspects of impacts on learning, communication considerations, ways to promote learning, and transitioning to adult life.
• READY Tool: Readiness Evaluation of Transition to Adulthood for Deaf-Blind Youth was created by the National Center on Deaf-Blindness in 2017. The READY Tool is designed to help transition teams of deafblind individuals at different ages to create an action plan to promote post-secondary independence and employment. It is aligned with the U.S. Department of Education Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) State Performance Plan (SPP) Indicators.  

• READY Tool: Prior to Age 14
• READY Tool: Age 14 to 17  
• READY Tool: Age 18 to 21
• READY Tool: Age 22 to 26  

• The Assessment – Texas Deafblind Project page lists many tools and resources for evaluating students who are deafblind or have visual impairment and additional disabilities. The Texas Deafblind Project’s TDB Toolbox for teachers of students who are deafblind & other team members has a plethora of tools and resources as well.
• Perkins eLearning has many videos on Deafblindness including: tangible symbols, communication, conversations, literacy , AAC, and more.
• The Communication Strategies for Children with Combined Vision and Hearing Loss website was created by SLP Amy Starble and has valuable information on Deafblindness, including the “communication portfolio” and how to create a communication plan.

English Language Learners & VI Resources

• Paths to Literacy has information on teaching English as a second language to visually impaired students and adults (Baltisberger, 2019).
• Including Students who are Blind or Visually Impaired in English Language Proficiency Assessments - A review of policies by the National Center on Educational Outcomes (Christensen et al., 2014).
• Second Language Acquisition and Children with Visual and Hearing Impairments - information from the Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired on language acquisition with sensory loss (Muñoz, 2004).
• California Practitioners’ Guide for Educating English Learners with Disabilities (CA Dept of Education, 2019)

Language Disorders & VI Resources

• Language Development - TeachingVisuallyImpaired.com (Willings, 2019)
• “Language and Communication Development in Preschoolers with Visual Impairment” - article with helpful tables on children’s development with VI (Mosca et al., 2015)

• The Communications Portfolio (DeCaluwe, n.d.): This is a non-standardized format to represent a child’s pre-symbolic and symbolic communication.

Learning Disabilities & VI

• Having a visual impairment does not preclude eligibility under Specific Learning Disability additionally if the education code criteria are met.

• “Specific learning disabilities do not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of intellectual disability, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage” (California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1, Article 3.1, § 3030. Eligibility Criteria).
• This does not imply that the IEP team should automatically dismiss the possibility of SLD eligibility if there is the presence of any of these exclusionary factors. It is possible for one or more of these factors to impact the student’s educational progress while still having a learning disability. The IEP team needs to gauge how much the exclusionary factors affect the student’s performance.
• Students with visual impairments may have additional challenges with learning that have manifested for reasons beyond or were not primarily caused by their visual impairment.

• Per Whittaker & Ortiz (2019) in their white paper “What a Specific Learning Disability is Not: Examining Exclusionary Factors” for the National Center for Learning Disabilities,

• “SLD can coexist with limited English proficiency as well disabilities such as sensory impairments, motor difficulties, emotional problems, and more. Any such factors may well be seen as contributory to the observed learning problems in the classroom and do not rule out a learning disability as long as they are not the primary reason for such difficulties.” (p. 6)

• Unfortunately, there is a common misconception that students with visual impairments cannot be considered for special education eligibility under the category of specific learning disabilities; the truth is that students with visual impairments can also have specific learning disabilities. The Texas Educational Agency (2022) provided guidance in Sensory Impairments and Specific Learning Disabilities, such as the following excerpt.

• “A common misconception is that the mere presence of a sensory impairment automatically rules out specific learning disability. This is not true. A sensory impairment can coexist with a specific learning disability (including dyslexia and related disorders). Admission, Review and Dismissal (ARD) committees need to consider this possibility, particularly when students’ academic skills are not progressing as expected despite receiving adequate instruction and appropriate supports and services to meet the needs that result from the sensory impairment. It may be that the sensory impairment does not fully explain the student’s current academic underachievement. For some students, the sensory impairment may be a contributing factor but is not what is primarily causing the observed academic underachievement. For these students, a specific learning disability may also be present.” (p.1)

• Effects of a learning disability can show up in braille literacy. It is important to tease out if the student has a learning disability or difficulty with the braille code due to other reasons, such as limited exposure to braille outside of VI sessions or limited frequency or duration of braille sessions with a qualified instructor (e.g., TSVI).
• Consider whether the student is experiencing significant educational needs despite appropriate access provided through accommodations for vision loss.
• When conducting a record review and examining previous test results for potential learning disabilities, review the documented adaptations and modifications during standardized testing and consider if they were appropriate. Consider if a TSVI was involved in the evaluation.
• Consider whether the student was provided appropriate educational experiences.

• Has the student had consistent attendance? Consider the impact of multiple absences due to medical procedures or illness.
• Were the recommendations from the TSVI’s functional vision assessment (FVA) and learning media assessment (LMA) implemented consistently and with fidelity?
• Does the historical data from records review indicate consistent challenges in specific academic areas that do not appear to be related to changes in learning medium or significant changes in vision?
• How did the student respond to academic interventions? What was the frequency and duration of interventions? Was the student given sufficient opportunity to benefit from applied interventions? Were the interventions appropriately matched to the student’s needs?

• Similar to other students with learning disabilities, there should be a profile of specific strengths and weaknesses. If a profile of strengths and weaknesses is not present, consider if other disabilities may be contributing to the learning challenges, such as behavioral challenges, emotional disturbance, or intellectual disability.
• The evaluation should include review of work samples, interviews with multiple sources, and observational data from multiple settings that corroborate challenges that are characteristic of learning disabilities. Testing is only a part of a comprehensive evaluation.

Learning Disabilities & VI Resources

• Check out the Council of Schools and Services for the Blind National Webinar: Can a student with a visual impairment have dyslexia? (recorded 59-minute webinar and handout) presented by Leah Read (2024).
• Marnee Loftin (2021) recorded a great quick series of videos for the National Center on Improving Literacy, as sponsored by the US Office of Elementary and Secondary Education and Office of Special Education. Check them out at Visual Impairment and Dyslexia Video Series | National Center on Improving Literacy. Topics covered include:

• Can students with visual impairments have dyslexia?
• How would someone evaluate for the presence of dyslexia in a student with visual impairment?
• What are some of the factors that impact the development of reading skills in students with visual impairments?
• What are some signs a student with visual impairment may need an evaluation for dyslexia?
• What types of intervention strategies are useful for students with visual impairments?

• Instructional strategies for struggling readers who are blind or visually impaired with learning disabilities: These excerpts are from "Instructional Strategies," Making Evaluations Meaningful by Marnee Loftin (2006), including strategies to increase fluency and comprehension, writing, and math. Making Evaluations Meaningful: Determining Additional Eligibilities and Appropriate Instructional Strategies for Bland and Visually Impaired Students, 2nd edition by Marnee Loftin (2022) is available in the TSBVI online store.
• Visual Impairment and Learning Disabilities | Paths to Literacy (Cushman, 2018): This blog post includes links to instructional strategies for struggling readers, indicators for possible learning disabilities, determining the impact of the particular eye condition, getting started with a struggling reading with visual impairments, providing support learning disabilities, and determining the presence of a learning disability.
• Providing Support for Students with Learning Disabilities and Visual Impairments | Paths to Literacy (Loftin, 2018): This blog post includes information on defining the problem, planning specific interventions, and maintaining specific data. 
• Unlocking the Foundations of Reading for Students with Visual Impairments (APH Hive course) includes information on the process of teaching reading, examine how to strengthen reading skills for all students, and how to evaluate the impact of visual impairments on learning to read. Modules include setting the stage, science behind reading, essential components of reading, special considerations for reading achievement, developing skilled readers, factors that affect access to reading, impact of VI on reading skills, and assessment tied to literacy. Ohio Center for Autism & Low Incidence (OCALI) and California State University, Los Angeles developed this course.
• Per the Joint Statement: Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Vision - Reaffirmed 2014 from the American Academy of Pediatrics (Section on Ophthalmology, Council on Children with Disabilities), the American Academy of Ophthalmology, the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus and the American Association of Certified Orthoptists,

• “Learning disabilities, including reading disabilities, are commonly diagnosed in children. Their etiologies are multifactorial, reflecting genetic influences and dysfunction of brain systems. Learning disabilities are complex problems that require complex solutions. Early recognition and referral to qualified educational professionals for evidence-based evaluations and treatments seem necessary to achieve the best possible outcome. Most experts believe that dyslexia is a language-based disorder. Vision problems can interfere with the process of learning; however, vision problems are not the cause of primary dyslexia or learning disabilities. Scientific evidence does not support the efficacy of eye exercises, behavioral vision therapy, or special tinted filters or lenses for improving the long-term educational performance in these complex pediatric neurocognitive conditions. Diagnostic and treatment approaches that lack scientific evidence of efficacy, including eye exercises, behavioral vision therapy, or special tinted filters or lenses, are not endorsed and should not be recommended.” (p.1)

Multiple Disabilities (ID & VI) Resources

• According to the chapter titled “Assessment of Students Who Have Visual Impairments and Multiple Disabilities” (Bruce et al., 2016),

Assessment of students with visual impairments and multiple disabilities will need to occur across multiple observation sessions and in multiple natural environments (those environments and locations in which the student typically participates in the activities being observed). It is important to note that when students with visual impairments and multiple disabilities are unfamiliar with the assessor (a school psychologist, teacher, or specialist) or the testing environment, they are less likely to perform to their maximum potential. (p. 108)

Portfolio assessment is one of the most effective forms of assessment for students with visual impairments and multiple disabilities. In a portfolio assessment, the teacher collects a sampling of student work over time as evidence of the student’s level of performance in one or more areas of the curriculum (p. 116)

Rather than emphasize scores or grade equivalents, the assessment report needs to focus on what the student can do, is not yet doing, and what would be the most valuable to teach. (p. 134)

• How We All Learn (Campano, 2016): This workbook is not an assessment tool, but rather a structured tool to provide technical assistance for educators and related service providers working with students who do not have a formal communication system. Outcomes include:

• Identify how the student experiences and relates to the world around them, in order to identify how the student learns.
• Identify and provide recommendations on five activities to begin the process of developing pre-symbolic and/or symbolic communication.
• Find ways to best engage the student to be an active participant.

(Note: Google Docs muddles up original formatting from Word doc. It is better to download and view this in Word.)

• Active Learning Space Active Learning is based on Dr. Lilli Nielsen’s work and “refers to a total approach for promoting the development of individuals with severe multiple disabilities. It contains an assessment, a curriculum, specifically-designed equipment, and instructional strategies that support learners to be active participants in their surroundings” (n.d.).
• Basic Orientation and Mobility for Children with Multiple Disabilities: A Starting Point (Perla & Ducret, n.d.) is a guidance document that addresses students’ need to feel safe, communicate, control, be in contact with the physical environment, independent  movement, consistency and routine, and meaningful mobility.
• Strategies for Assessing and Teaching Students with Visual and Multiple Disabilities (Smith, 2016) is a recorded webcast from Perkins School for the Blind that provides information about the sensorimotor phase of development and challenges that children with visual impairments and multiple disabilities experience.  
• Hand-under-hand Guidance: Many special education staff are accustomed to hand-over-hand guidance for students with intensive needs. To promote the student’s sense of control and engagement in an activity, encourage staff to utilize hand-under-hand prompting.
• Guidance for Planning Behavior Intervention for Children and Young Adults who are Deafblind or have Visual and Multiple Impairments from Texas School for the Blind (Schultz et al., n.d.): “In this booklet, we hope to provide information for educators and others that will help in developing proactive strategies in programming to reduce the amount of stress the child might experience. We believe that appropriate programming does reduce stress and helps to develop children who are eager to learn and participate with others. The first portion of this booklet discusses key components of programming for students who are deafblind or visually and multiply impaired that supports the child in becoming more resilient and competent interacting with others and the world. This book addresses those students with the most severe challenges, though most of these strategies are also beneficial for students who are more advanced communicators with fewer additional challenges” (p. 2).

Language Impairment & VI

• Students with visual impairment can have language disorders. Regardless of the special education eligibility category that is designated, it's important to help students develop their language skills.

• Having a visual impairment does not preclude IEP eligibility under Speech Language Impairment (SLI) if the education code criteria are met.
• Per DSM-5-TR for Language Disorder, when the language deficits are in excess of what is expected [for sensory loss], a diagnosis of language disorder can be made (American Psychiatric Association, 2022).

• Even without the SLI eligibility designation, SLPs can serve students with visual impairments who have an IEP if there is clinical evidence of the need for support.

• Pragmatic language skills may be particularly impacted due to limited or lack of access to nonverbal communication.
• Students who struggle with literacy may need phonological awareness support.
• Students may benefit from social skills instruction or group practice.
• Younger students may benefit from play-based instruction and teaching children how to play.

• Some resources for SLPs:

• Language Development - TeachingVisuallyImpaired.com (Willings, 2019)
• “Language and Communication Development in Preschoolers with Visual Impairment” - article with helpful tables on children’s development with VI (Mosca et al., 2015)
• The Communications Portfolio (DeCaluwe, n.d.): This is a non-standardized format to represent a child’s pre-symbolic and symbolic communication.
• Developing Social Skills in Children who are Blind or Visually Impaired (a Perkins video)
• Teaching Play Skills to Visually Impaired Preschool Children; Its Effect on Social Interaction (2008 article in Educational Sciences)
• Teaching Social Skills to Children and Adolescents with Visual Impairments, A Systematic Review (Free article from the Journal of Visual Impairments and Blindness)
• Teaching the Meaning of Words to Children with Visual Impairments
• Building Language Skills With Preschoolers who are Visually Impaired

  ---

Appendix D: Potential Recommendation Resources

The following resources include ideas for recommendations to consider for supporting a student with visual impairment.

Specific Eye Condition Related Recommendations

Causes of Vision Loss In Children - Resources (CA School for the Blind): This information was written for children and young teens who have visual impairments. It lists causes and sample accommodations.

Specific Eye Conditions, Corresponding Impact on Vision, And Related Educational Considerations (Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired, 2016): This TSBVI website page provides great information about eye conditions, their effects on vision, and educational considerations.

General Recommendations

Practical Tips & Strategies for Supporting the Whole Child with Visual Impairments (CSB, 2021):  This handout includes tips and strategies for promoting healthy behaviors and routines, facilitating learning, supporting mental health, and practicing your own self-care.

The following list of recommendations is intended to provide a starting point for considerations and is not a comprehensive list that addresses all of the needs that a student with visual impairments may have. Recommendations should be tailored to the specific student’s needs with guidance from the TSVI, O&M, and other evaluation team members.

• Express high expectations of the student’s success.
• Offer explicit teaching, particularly for social skills, executive functioning (e.g., organization, planning, time management).
• Provide concrete examples.
• Offer direct experiences, using real objects when possible.
• Provide opportunities for learning by doing and experiential learning to unify concepts.
• Allow for repetition of explanations or demonstrations of activities or concepts.
• Offer repeated practice opportunities.
• Give specific feedback, and emphasize positive reinforcement of effort. Encourage flexible problem solving and perseverance. Reframe mistakes as opportunities for learning; promote a growth mindset.
• Collaboration is key among all service providers, educational team, and family. Use of consistent language can help students to generalize skills to different settings.

• Develop a system or strategies to request for help or decline help.
• Allow for extended time for processing information or work completion.
• Careful training for paraprofessional staff is important to support the student’s learning, development of independence, and integration in the school community. Fade adult support when possible and as appropriate. 19 Ways to Step Back is a helpful reference and reminder to foster the student’s independence.

Appendix E: Sample Evaluation Forms

The following links are evaluation forms to consider but are not required for every evaluation.

• Sample Child and Adolescent Interview Protocol (Adapted from CASP 2016 Teen Interview & CSUEB EPSY 663 Course Reader Fall 2018)
• COVID-19 Impact Student Interview (Adapted from Moon, 2020)
• Sample Sentence Completion (Adapted from CSUEB EPSY 663 Course Reader, 2018)
• Youth Mental Status Exam (Adapted from Dennis, n.d.; Faulkner, n.d.; Hass, 2007; H. Hendricks, personal communication, May 7, 2021; Voss & Das, 2020)

• Preference Inventory (Adapted from Washington Sensory Disabilities Services, 2012)
• BEARS Screening Tool for Assessment of Sleep in Children (Owens, 2005)

Appendix F: California Codes Relevant to VI

The following information was pulled from ​​California Legislative Information for the California Education Code and California Code of Regulations in September and October 2022. Please visit the direct websites for the most accurate and up-to-date information.

California Education Code

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, Chapter 4. Identification and Referral, Assessment, Instructional Planning, Implementation, and Review.

ARTICLE 2. Assessment [56320 - 56330]  

56320.

  Before any action is taken with respect to the initial placement of an individual with exceptional needs in special education instruction, an individual assessment of the pupil’s educational needs shall be conducted, by qualified persons, in accordance with requirements including, but not limited to, all of the following:

(a) Testing and assessment materials and procedures used for the purposes of assessment and placement of individuals with exceptional needs are selected and administered so as not to be racially, culturally, or sexually discriminatory. Pursuant to Section 1412(a)(6)(B) of Title 20 of the United States Code, the materials and procedures shall be provided in the pupil’s native language or mode of communication, unless it is clearly not feasible to do so.

(b) Tests and other assessment materials meet all of the following requirements:

(1) Are provided and administered in the language and form most likely to yield accurate information on what the pupil knows and can do academically, developmentally, and functionally, unless it is not feasible to so provide or administer as required by Section 1414(b)(3)(A)(ii) of Title 20 of the United States Code.

(2) Are used for purposes for which the assessments or measures are valid and reliable.

(3) Are administered by trained and knowledgeable personnel and are administered in accordance with any instructions provided by the producer of the assessments, except that individually administered tests of intellectual or emotional functioning shall be administered by a credentialed school psychologist.

(c) Tests and other assessment materials include those tailored to assess specific areas of educational need and not merely those that are designed to provide a single general intelligence quotient.

(d) Tests are selected and administered to best ensure that when a test administered to a pupil with impaired sensory, manual, or speaking skills produces test results that accurately reflect the pupil’s aptitude, achievement level, or any other factors the test purports to measure and not the pupil’s impaired sensory, manual, or speaking skills unless those skills are the factors the test purports to measure.

(e) Pursuant to Section 1414(b)(2)(B) of Title 20 of the United States Code, no single measure or assessment is used as the sole criterion for determining whether a pupil is an individual with exceptional needs or determining an appropriate educational program for the pupil.

(f) The pupil is assessed in all areas related to the suspected disability including, if appropriate, health and development, vision, including low vision, hearing, motor abilities, language function, general intelligence, academic performance, communicative status, self-help, orientation and mobility skills, career and vocational abilities and interests, and social and emotional status. A developmental history shall be obtained, when appropriate. For pupils with residual vision, a low vision assessment shall be provided in accordance with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136. In assessing each pupil under this article, the assessment shall be conducted in accordance with Sections 300.304 and 300.305 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations.

(g) The assessment of a pupil, including the assessment of a pupil with a suspected low incidence disability, shall be conducted by persons knowledgeable of that disability. Special attention shall be given to the unique educational needs, including, but not limited to, skills and the need for specialized services, materials, and equipment consistent with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136.

(h) As part of an initial assessment, if appropriate, and as part of any reassessment under Part B of the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (20 U.S.C. Sec. 1400 et seq.) and this part, the group that includes members of the individualized education program team, and other qualified professionals, as appropriate, shall follow the procedures specified in Section 1414(c) of Title 20 of the United States Code. The group may conduct its review without a meeting.

(i) Each local educational agency shall ensure that assessments of individuals with exceptional needs who transfer from one district to another district in the same academic year are coordinated with the individual’s prior and subsequent schools, as necessary and as expeditiously as possible, in accordance with Section 1414(b)(3)(D) of Title 20 of the United States Code, to ensure prompt completion of the full assessment.

(Amended by Stats. 2007, Ch. 56, Sec. 38. Effective January 1, 2008.)

56320.1.

  All identification, evaluation, and assessment procedures for individuals with exceptional needs who are younger than three years of age shall be provided pursuant to Chapter 4.4 (commencing with Section 56425) and the California Early Intervention Services Act, Title 14 (commencing with Section 95000) of the Government Code.

(Added by Stats. 1993, Ch. 1296, Sec. 14.4. Effective October 11, 1993.)

56321.6.

  The copy of the notice of parent rights shall include information regarding the state special schools for pupils who are deaf, hard of hearing, blind, visually impaired, or deaf-blind.

(Added by Stats. 2008, Ch. 245, Sec. 1. Effective January 1, 2009.)

56322.

  The assessment shall be conducted by persons competent to perform the assessment, as determined by the local educational agency.

(Amended by Stats. 2007, Ch. 56, Sec. 40. Effective January 1, 2008.)

56326.

  A pupil may be referred, as appropriate, for further assessment and recommendations to the California Schools for the Deaf or Blind or the Diagnostic Centers.

(Amended by Stats. 1992, Ch. 759, Sec. 30. Effective September 21, 1992.)

56327.

  The personnel who assess the pupil shall prepare a written report, or reports, as appropriate, of the results of each assessment. The report shall include, but not be limited to, all the following:

(a) Whether the pupil may need special education and related services.

(b) The basis for making the determination.

(c) The relevant behavior noted during the observation of the pupil in an appropriate setting.

(d) The relationship of that behavior to the pupil’s academic and social functioning.

(e) The educationally relevant health and development, and medical findings, if any.

(f)  For pupils with learning disabilities, whether there is such a discrepancy between achievement and ability that it cannot be corrected without special education and related services.

(g) A determination concerning the effects of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage, where appropriate.

(h) The need for specialized services, materials, and equipment for pupils with low incidence disabilities, consistent with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136.

(Amended by Stats. 1982, Ch. 1334, Sec. 4.)

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, Chapter 4. Identification and Referral, Assessment, Instructional Planning, Implementation, and Review.

ARTICLE 3. Instructional Planning and Individualized Education Program [56340 - 56347]  (Article 3 added by Stats. 1980, Ch. 797, Sec. 9. )

56341.1.

  (a) When developing each pupil’s individualized education program, the individualized education program team shall consider the following:

(1) The strengths of the pupil.

(2) The concerns of the parents or guardians for enhancing the education of the pupil.

(3) The results of the initial assessment or most recent assessment of the pupil.

(4) The academic, developmental, and functional needs of the child.

(b) The individualized education program team shall do the following:

(1) In the case of a pupil whose behavior impedes his or her learning or that of others, consider the use of positive behavioral interventions and supports, and other strategies, to address that behavior.

(2) In the case of a pupil with limited English proficiency, consider the language needs of the pupil as those needs relate to the pupil’s individualized education program.

(3) In the case of a pupil who is blind or visually impaired, provide for instruction in braille, and the use of braille, unless the individualized education program team determines, after an assessment of the pupil’s reading and writing skills, needs, and appropriate reading and writing media, including an assessment of the pupil’s future needs for instruction in braille or the use of braille, that instruction in braille or the use of braille is not appropriate for the pupil.

(4) Consider the communication needs of the pupil, and in the case of a pupil who is deaf or hard of hearing, consider the pupil’s language and communication needs, opportunities for direct communications with peers and professional personnel in the pupil’s language and communication mode, academic level, and full range of needs, including opportunities for direct instruction in the pupil’s language and communication mode.

(5) Consider whether the pupil requires assistive technology devices and services as defined in Section 1401(1) and (2) of Title 20 of the United States Code.

(c) If, in considering the special factors described in subdivisions (a) and (b), the individualized education program team determines that a pupil needs a particular device or service, including an intervention, accommodation, or other program modification, in order for the pupil to receive a free appropriate public education, the individualized education program team shall include a statement to that effect in the pupil’s individualized education program.

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, Chapter 4 Identification and Referral, Assessment, Instructional Planning, Implementation, and Review,

ARTICLE 3.5. Individualized Education Program for Visually Impaired Pupils [56350 - 56354]  ( Article 3.5 added by Stats. 1994, Ch. 998, Sec. 3.)

56350.

  Unless the context otherwise requires, the definitions set forth in this section shall govern the construction of this article.

(a) A “functionally blind pupil” means a pupil who relies basically on senses other than vision as major channels for learning.

(b) A “pupil with low vision” means a pupil who uses vision as a channel for learning, but who may also benefit from instruction in braille.

(c) A “visually impaired pupil” means a pupil who is functionally blind or a pupil with low vision. For purposes of this article, a “visually impaired pupil” does not include a pupil who is eligible for special education and related services based on a specific learning disability identified pursuant to Section 56338.

(d) (1) “Braille” means the system of reading and writing through touch commonly known as Unified English Braille.

(2) Nothing in paragraph (1) shall be construed to prohibit the use of Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Science Notation in the teaching of mathematics and science, the use of Music Braille Code, or the use of International Phonetic Alphabet Braille Code.

(Amended by Stats. 2018, Ch. 85, Sec. 1. (AB 3223) Effective January 1, 2019.)

56351.

  Local educational agencies shall provide opportunities for braille instruction for pupils who, due to a prognosis of visual deterioration, may be expected to have a need for braille as a reading medium.

(Amended by Stats. 2007, Ch. 56, Sec. 52. Effective January 1, 2008.)

56351.5.

  (a) (1) A local educational agency may reinforce braille instruction using a braille instructional aide who meets the criteria set forth in paragraph (2) under the supervision of a teacher who holds an appropriate credential, as determined by the Commission on Teacher Credentialing, to teach pupils who are functionally blind or visually impaired. This instruction shall be in accordance with the individualized education program of the pupil.

(2) For purposes of this section, a braille instructional aide shall demonstrate to the supervising teacher that he or she is fluent in reading and writing grade 2 braille and possesses basic knowledge of the rules of braille construction.

(b) A local educational agency that employs a braille instructional aide shall provide the aide with information regarding teaching credential programs, including the Wildman-Keeley-Solis Exemplary Teacher Training Act of 1997 (Article 12 (commencing with Section 44390) of Chapter 2 of Part 25) and the Teacher Education Internship Act of 1967 (Article 3 (commencing with Section 44450) of Chapter 3 of Part 25).

(Amended by Stats. 2007, Ch. 730, Sec. 37. Effective January 1, 2008.)

56351.7.

  (a) The Superintendent of Public Instruction shall form an advisory task force to develop standards for the mastery of the braille code as a child progresses through kindergarten to grade 12, inclusive.

(b) The task force shall include, but shall not be limited to, members approved by the State Board of Education representing all of the following:

(1) Parents of visually impaired pupils.

(2) Teachers of visually impaired pupils.

(3) Researchers in the field of visual impairment.

(4) Braille experts.

(5) Groups that advocate for teaching of, and use of, braille.

(6) Groups that advocate for the visually impaired.

(c) The task force shall report to the Governor and to the education committees of the Assembly and the Senate by June 30, 2004.

(Added by Stats. 2002, Ch. 653, Sec. 1. Effective January 1, 2003.)

56351.8.

  (a) The Superintendent shall utilize the advisory task force established pursuant to Section 56351.7 to develop standards for pupils described in subdivision (b) to learn, and to achieve mastery of, the braille mathematics code as they progress through kindergarten and grades 1 to 12, inclusive.

(b) The standards described in subdivision (a) shall be developed for pupils who, due to a visual impairment, are functionally blind or may be expected to have a need to learn the braille code as their primary literacy mode for learning.

(c) The task force shall, by March 1, 2006, report to the state board with the standards it develops pursuant to subdivision (a).

(Added by Stats. 2005, Ch. 530, Sec. 2. Effective January 1, 2006.)

56351.9.

  (a) By June 1, 2006, the state board shall adopt braille reading and mathematics standards for pupils who, due to a visual impairment, are functionally blind or may be expected to have a need to learn the braille code as their primary literacy mode for learning.

(b) County offices of education, school districts, and special education local plan areas shall provide to pupils described in subdivision (a) opportunities for instruction to master the braille reading and mathematics standards described in subdivision (a).

(Added by Stats. 2005, Ch. 530, Sec. 3. Effective January 1, 2006.)

56352.

  (a) A functional vision assessment conducted pursuant to Section 56320 shall be used as one criterion in determining the appropriate reading medium or media for the pupil.

(b) An assessment of braille skills shall be required for functionally blind pupils who have the ability to read in accordance with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136. A local educational agency may provide pupils with low vision with the opportunity to receive assessments to determine the appropriate reading medium or media, including braille instruction, for the pupils.

(c) The determination, by a pupil’s individualized education program team, of the most appropriate medium or media, including braille, for functionally blind pupils who have the ability to read shall use as one criterion the assessment provided for pursuant to subdivision (b) and shall be in accordance with guidelines established pursuant to Section 56136.

(d) Except as provided in subdivision (b) of Section 56351.5, braille instruction shall be provided by a teacher who holds an appropriate credential, as determined by the Commission on Teacher Credentialing, to teach pupils who are functionally blind or visually impaired.

(e) Each visually impaired pupil shall be provided with the opportunity to receive an assessment to determine the appropriate reading medium or media, including braille instruction, if appropriate, for that pupil.

(Amended by Stats. 2007, Ch. 56, Sec. 54. Effective January 1, 2008.)

56353.

  (a) The Legislature finds and declares that the expanded core curriculum is a set of knowledge and skills in which instruction or services, or both, may be beneficial to a pupil who is blind, has low vision, or is visually impaired. Local educational agencies may consider the expanded core curriculum when developing individualized education programs for a pupil who is blind, has low vision, or is visually impaired.

(b) The expanded core curriculum is defined to be all of the following:

(1) Compensatory skills, such as braille and concept development and other skills needed to access the core curriculum.

(2) Orientation and mobility.

(3) Social interaction skills.

(4) Career technical education.

(5) Assistive technology, including optical devices.

(6) Independent living skills.

(7) Recreation and leisure.

(8) Self-determination.

(9) Sensory efficiency.

(c) When appropriate to ensure that a pupil will receive adequate services under this section, those services may be provided before or after school hours.

(d) For purposes of this section, “local educational agency” means a school district, county office of education, or charter school.

(Added by Stats. 2019, Ch. 778, Sec. 2. (AB 947) Effective January 1, 2020.)

56354.

  (a) (1) If an orientation and mobility evaluation is determined to be needed for a pupil who is blind, has low vision, or is visually impaired, it shall be conducted by a person who is appropriately certified as an orientation and mobility specialist.

(2) The orientation and mobility evaluations described in paragraph (1) shall occur in familiar and unfamiliar environments, in varying lighting conditions, and in the home, school, and community, as appropriate.

(b) Except as specified in subdivision (c), a local educational agency shall not impose any limitations that result in the preclusion or the limitation of the ability of a pupil to receive instruction in orientation and mobility services in the home, school, or community setting and in varying lighting conditions, as designated in the pupil’s individualized education program and provided for pursuant to the federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (20 U.S.C. Sec. 1400 et seq.).

(c) (1) A local educational agency may require annual written parental consent to provide the services described in subdivision (b) when those services are provided before or after regular school hours and when those services are provided away from the schoolsite.

(2) If a local educational agency prohibits an orientation and mobility specialist from using their vehicles for the transportation of pupils to and from orientation and mobility instruction, the local educational agency shall provide, without cost to the orientation and mobility specialist, an equally effective transportation alternative for that purpose.

(d) For purposes of this section, “local educational agency” means a school district, county office of education, or charter school.

(Added by Stats. 2019, Ch. 778, Sec. 3. (AB 947) Effective January 1, 2020.)

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, Chapter 4 Identification and Referral, Assessment, Instructional Planning, Implementation, and Review,

ARTICLE 4. Implementation [56360 - 56369]  ( Article 4 added by Stats. 1980, Ch. 797, Sec. 9. )

56367.

  (a) Placements in state special schools pursuant to Sections 59020, 59120, and 59220 shall be made only as a result of recommendations from the individualized education program team, upon a finding that no appropriate placement is available in the local plan area.

(b) Notwithstanding the provisions of subdivision (a), referrals for further assessment and recommendations to the California Schools for the Deaf and Blind or the Diagnostic Centers, pursuant to Section 56326, shall not constitute placements in state special schools.

(Amended by Stats. 1993, Ch. 1296, Sec. 17. Effective October 11, 1993.)

56363.

  (a) As used in this part, the term “designated instruction and services” means “related services” as that term is defined in Section 1401(26) of Title 20 of the United States Code and Section 300.34 of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations. The term “related services” means transportation, and such developmental, corrective, and other supportive services (including speech-language pathology and audiology services, interpreting services, psychological services, physical and occupational therapy, recreation, including therapeutic recreation, social work services, school nurse services designed to enable an individual with exceptional needs to receive a free appropriate public education as described in the individualized education program of the child, counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling, orientation, and mobility services, and medical services, except that such medical services shall be for diagnostic and evaluation purposes only) as may be required to assist an individual with exceptional needs to benefit from special education, and includes the early identification and assessment of disabling conditions in children.

(b) These services may include, but are not limited to, the following:

(1) Language and speech development and remediation. The language and speech development and remediation services may be provided by a speech-language pathology assistant as defined in subdivision (i) of Section 2530.2 of the Business and Professions Code.

(2) Audiological services.

(3) Orientation and mobility services.

(4) Instruction in the home or hospital.

(5) Adapted physical education.

(6) Physical and occupational therapy.

(7) Vision services.

(8) Specialized driver training instruction.

(9) Counseling and guidance services, including rehabilitation counseling.

(10) Psychological services other than assessment and development of the individualized education program.

(11) Parent counseling and training.

(12) Health and nursing services, including school nurse services designed to enable an individual with exceptional needs to receive a free appropriate public education as described in the individualized education program.

(13) Social worker services.

(14) Specially designed vocational education and career development.

(15) Recreation services.

(16) Specialized services for low-incidence disabilities, such as readers, transcribers, and vision and hearing services.

(17) Interpreting services.

(c) The terms “designated instruction and services” and “related services” do not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, including cochlear implants, the optimization of the functioning of a medical device, maintenance of that device, or the replacement of that device, pursuant to Section 300.34(b) of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations. In accordance with Section 300.34(b) of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations, nothing in this subdivision shall do any of the following:

(1) Limit the right of an individual with exceptional needs with a surgically implanted device, including a cochlear implant, to receive related services or designated instruction and services that are determined by the individualized education program team to be necessary for the individual to receive a free appropriate public education.

(2) Limit the responsibility of a local educational agency to appropriately monitor and maintain medical devices that are needed to maintain the health and safety of the individual, including breathing, nutrition, or operation of other bodily functions, while the individual is transported to and from school or is at school.

(3) Prevent the routine checking of an external component of a surgically implanted device to make sure it is functioning properly, as required by Section 300.113(b) of Title 34 of the Code of Federal Regulations.

(Amended by Stats. 2011, Ch. 347, Sec. 35. (SB 942) Effective January 1, 2012.)

56363.1.

  A local educational agency is not required to purchase medical equipment for an individual pupil. However, the local educational agency is responsible for providing other specialized equipment for use at school that is needed to implement the individualized education program. For purposes of this section, “medical equipment” does not include an assistive technology device, as defined in Section 1401(1) of Title 20 of the United States Code.

(Amended by Stats. 2007, Ch. 56, Sec. 57. Effective January 1, 2008.)

56364.1.

  Notwithstanding the provisions of Section 56364.2, pupils with low incidence disabilities may receive all or a portion of their instruction in the regular classroom and may also be enrolled in special classes taught by appropriately credentialed teachers who serve these pupils at one or more schoolsites. The instruction shall be provided in a manner which is consistent with the guidelines adopted pursuant to Section 56136 and in accordance with the individualized education program.

(Amended by Stats. 2004, Ch. 896, Sec. 60. Effective September 29, 2004.)

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 32, Chapter 2 California School for the Blind, 

ARTICLE 1. Administration [59100 - 59104]  ( Article 1 enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010. )

59100.

  There is one state school for the blind, known and designated as the California School for the Blind.

(Enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010.)

59101.

  The California School for the Blind is a part of the public school system of the state except that it derives no revenue from the State School Fund, and has for its object the education of visually impaired, blind, and deaf-blind pupils who, because of their severe sensory loss and educational needs, cannot be provided an appropriate educational program and related services in the regular public schools.

(Amended by Stats. 1992, Ch. 759, Sec. 53. Effective September 21, 1992.)

59102.

  The California School for the Blind is under the administration of the State Department of Education.

The Superintendent of Public Instruction, in connection with the California School for the Blind, shall do all of the following:

(a) Provide educational assessments and individual educational recommendations for individuals referred for those services pursuant to Section 56326.

(b) Maintain a comprehensive elementary and secondary educational program, including related services and nonacademic and extracurricular activities for visually impaired, blind, and deaf-blind individuals.

(Amended by Stats. 1992, Ch. 759, Sec. 54. Effective September 21, 1992.)

59102.5.

  The Superintendent of Public Instruction, in connection with the California School for the Blind and in cooperation with public and private agencies, may:

(a) Serve as a demonstration school to promote personnel development through student teaching, in-service education, internships, and professional observations for special education and related services personnel, in cooperation with institutions of higher education and local education agencies.

(b) Serve as a resource center to develop and disseminate special curriculum, media, teaching methods and instructional materials adapted for visually impaired, blind, and deaf-blind individuals, achievement tests, and other assessment methods useful to the instruction of visually impaired, blind, and deaf-blind individuals.

(c) Provide counseling and information services to parents, guardians, and families of visually impaired, blind, or deaf-blind individuals, and public information about sensory losses to community groups and other agencies.

(d) Conduct experimental programs and projects to promote improvement in special education for visually impaired, blind, and deaf-blind individuals.

(e) Promote community and continuing education opportunities for visually impaired, blind, and deaf-blind individuals utilizing existing community resources.

(Amended by Stats. 1992, Ch. 759, Sec. 55. Effective September 21, 1992.)

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 32, Chapter 2 California School for the Blind, 

ARTICLE 3. Pupils [59120 - 59131]  ( Article 3 enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010. )

59120.

  Every blind person resident of this state, of suitable age and capacity, is entitled to an education in the California School for the Blind free of charge.

(Enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010.)

59123.

  All pupils in the school shall be maintained at the expense of the state, except as provided in Sections 59121, 59124 to 59128, inclusive, and 59131.

(Enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010.)

59124.

  The governing board of each school district of residence shall, from the general fund of the school district, pay for the transportation cost of each pupil of the district in attendance at the California School for the Blind as a day-class pupil.

For determining the school district responsible under the provisions of this section for making the payment when the pupils reside in other than a unified school district, pupils 15 years of age or older as of September 1 of each fiscal year shall be considered residents of the high school district, and pupils 14 years of age or under as of September 1 shall be considered residents of the elementary district.

(Enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010.)

59124.5.

  The Superintendent of Public Instruction shall allow to the California School for the Blind, an amount not to exceed three hundred eighty-nine dollars ($389) per fiscal year per unit of average daily attendance of each blind pupil attending the school as a five-day residential pupil for the purpose of providing transportation to and from the pupil’s home on weekends and school holiday periods. In no case shall the total apportionment made to the school exceed the actual total transportation expenditures of the school.

The administrators of such schools shall arrange for transportation of such pupils utilizing the most practical means including, but not limited to, commercial bus, rail, or air, charter bus or private passenger vehicle.

(Added by Stats. 1977, Ch. 1249.)

59131.

  Blind persons not residents of this state may be admitted to the benefits of the school upon paying to the Department of Education the sum of the school year cost for the maintenance, care, and instruction of persons at the school, payable quarterly in advance. The cost of the care, maintenance, and instruction shall be determined by the Department of Education with the approval of the Department of Finance.

(Enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010.)

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 32, Chapter 2 California School for the Blind,

ARTICLE 4. Services and Courses [59140 - 59144]  ( Article 4 enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010. )

59140.

  The Department of Education, in connection with the California School for the Blind, shall establish and maintain a kindergarten service for the care and teaching of children under school age. The department shall prescribe the rules and regulations which shall govern the conduct of the kindergarten service, appoint such teachers as it determines necessary, and fix their salaries.

(Enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010.)

59141.

  The Department of Education shall create the position of visiting teacher to blind children of preschool age. With the consent of the parents of any blind child of preschool age it shall be the duties of such visiting teacher to assist and instruct the parents in the early care and training of said child, to train the child in play, and to do everything which will assure the child’s physical, mental and social adjustment to its environment. The Department of Education shall maintain a sufficient number of visiting teachers to adequately serve the needs of parents of preschool blind children in accordance with the known number of such children. In any event the caseload of each visiting teacher shall not exceed a number of clients that can be adequately and fully served.

(Enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010.)

59142.

  The Department of Education, in addition to the teaching and education of the blind of suitable age, shall adopt measures and prescribe rules for the giving of vocational training to the pupils at the school, in order that they may be equipped upon their graduation to engage in occupations or industries by which they may become self-supporting. The board shall determine the nature and scope of the vocational training, with the view of best adapting the blind to follow useful and productive pursuits, after the completion of their education.

(Enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010.)

59143.

  The Superintendent of Public Instruction may authorize the California School for the Blind to establish and maintain, either independently or in cooperation with the University of California or the Trustees of the California State University, teacher training courses for teachers of the blind. The Superintendent of Public Instruction shall establish standards for the admission of persons to the courses, and for the content of the courses.

The California School for the Blind may enter into one or more agreements with the Trustees of the California State University, the University of California, or any other university or college accredited by the State Board of Education as a teacher training educational institution, to provide practice teaching required for issuance of the credentials authorizing the holder to teach visually impaired, blind, or deaf-blind individuals, or provide orientation and mobility instruction. The agreement or agreements may provide for a reasonable payment, for services rendered, to teachers of the California School for the Blind who have practice teachers under their direction.

(Amended by Stats. 1993, Ch. 1296, Sec. 33. Effective October 11, 1993.)

59144.

  The Superintendent of Public Instruction, in conjunction with the California School for the Blind, shall provide assessment and instructional planning services for individuals who are referred for those services pursuant to Section 56326.

(Amended by Stats. 1992, Ch. 759, Sec. 58. Effective September 21, 1992.)

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 28, Chapter 9. Career Technical Education,

ARTICLE 1. Regional Occupational Centers [52300 - 52334.7]  ( Article 1 enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010. )  

52315.  

(a) A visually impaired, orthopedically impaired, or deaf person who is not enrolled in a regular high school or community college program may attend a regional occupational center or regional occupational program pursuant to the requirements described in Section 52314.5. Additional special instruction and support services shall be provided to these persons.

(b) If the Superintendent determines that there would be a duplication of effort to these impaired persons if a regional occupational center or regional occupational program provided services to them, in that other programs exist that are available to them, the Superintendent may disapprove of the curriculum to provide programs to these impaired persons pursuant to Section 52309.

(Amended by Stats. 2015, Ch. 19, Sec. 102. (SB 78) Effective June 24, 2015.)

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 3, Part 25, Chapter 2 Teacher Credentialing,

ARTICLE 4. Credential Types [44250 - 44277]  ( Article 4 enacted by Stats. 1976, Ch. 1010. )

44265.5.  

(a) Pupils who are visually impaired shall be taught by teachers whose professional preparation and credential authorization are specific to that impairment.

(b) Pupils who are deaf or hard of hearing shall be taught by teachers whose professional preparation and credential authorization are specific to that impairment.

(c) Pupils who are orthopedically impaired shall be taught by teachers whose professional preparation and credential authorization are specific to that impairment.

(Amended by Stats. 1994, Ch. 1288, Sec. 3. Effective January 1, 1995.)

California Education Code, Title 2, Division 4, Part 30, Chapter 7.2 Special Education Funding,

ARTICLE 5. Low Incidence Funding [56836.22- 56836.22.]  ( Article 5 added by Stats. 1997, Ch. 854, Sec. 65. )

56836.22.

  (a) Commencing with the 1985–86 fiscal year, and for each fiscal year thereafter, funds to support special education and related services as required under the individualized education program for each pupil with low-incidence disabilities, as defined in Section 56026.5, shall be determined by dividing the total number of pupils with low-incidence disabilities in the state, as reported in the California Longitudinal Pupil Achievement Data System pursuant to Chapter 10 (commencing with Section 60900) of Part 33 on the Fall 1 Census of the prior fiscal year, into the annual appropriation provided for this purpose in the annual Budget Act.

(b) The per-pupil entitlement determined pursuant to subdivision (a) shall be multiplied by the number of pupils with low-incidence disabilities in each special education local plan area to determine the total funds available for each local plan.

(c) The Superintendent shall apportion the amount determined pursuant to subdivision (b) to the special education local plan area for purposes of providing special education and related services as required under the individualized education program for each pupil with low-incidence disabilities.

(Amended by Stats. 2020, Ch. 24, Sec. 80. (SB 98) Effective June 29, 2020.)

California Code of Regulations

California Code of Regulations, Title 17 Public Health, Division 2 Health and Welfare Agency Department of Developmental Services Regulations, Chapter 2 Early Intervention Services, Subchapter 1. General Provisions, Article 1. Definitions

§52000. Meaning of Words.

(61) Vision impairment means a visual condition which, even with correction, adversely affects the infant's or toddler's development.

(62) Vision services mean evaluation and assessment of visual functioning, referral for medical or other professional services necessary for the habilitation or rehabilitation of visual functioning disorders, or both; and communication skills training, orientation and mobility training for all environments, visual training, and additional training necessary to activate visual motor abilities.

Compilation of Early Start Statutes & Regulations

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 2, Subchapter 3. Health and Safety of Pupils,

Article 4. Vision Testing.

§ 594. Test of Visual Acuity.

(a) The test of visual acuity administered pursuant to Education Code sections 49452 and 49455 shall mean a test for visual acuity at both the far point and near point. This shall be conducted by means of an optotype test or any other scientifically validated photoscreening test that measures visual acuity.

(b) Definition of failure for the far point visual acuity test shall be defined as follows:

(1) For pupils four years of age: Visual acuity of 20/50 or worse. The designation 20/50 or worse indicates the inability to identify accurately the majority of letters or symbols on the 20-foot line of the test chart at a distance of 10 feet.

(2) For pupils five years of age or older: Visual acuity of 20/40 or worse. The designation 20/40 or worse indicates the inability to identify the majority of letters or symbols on 20-foot line of the chart at a distance of 10 feet.

(3) For all pupils: A difference of visual acuity between the two eyes of two lines or more on the optotype chart.

(c) Test failure for the near point visual acuity test shall be defined as follows:

(1) For all pupils: Visual acuity of 20/40 or worse. The designation 20/40 or worse indicates the inability to identify accurately the majority of letters or symbols on the test chart at a distance of 16 inches with both eyes open.

(d) For pupils who, because of age or special needs are not able to be tested with an optotype test, other types of vision testing, such as a functional vision screening or instrument-based screening, may be utilized, using procedures and criteria of failure as described by the manufacturer.

(e) If a pupil fails a vision test that is conducted by an employee authorized to give vision tests pursuant to subdivision (b) of section 591 or subdivision (a) of section 597, a reevaluation shall be conducted prior to a report being made to the pupil's parent or guardian. This reevaluation shall be conducted by an employee authorized to give vision tests pursuant to subdivision (a) of section 591.

(f) If a pupil fails a vision test conducted by an employee authorized to give vision tests pursuant to subdivision (a) of section 591, a report shall be made to the pupil's parent or guardian as required by Education Code section 49456.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 33031, Education Code. Reference: Sections 3308.5, 49452, 49455 and 49456, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 1-19-73; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 73, No. 3).

2. Amendment filed 5-21-75; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 75, No. 21).

3. Amendment of Section and repealer of NOTE filed 9-23-77; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 77, No. 39).

4. Amendment of section heading and section and new NOTE filed 8-9-2004; operative 8-9-2004 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2004, No. 33).

5. Amendment filed 12-26-2019; operative 4-1-2020 (Register 2019, No. 52).

This database is current through 8/26/22 Register 2022, No. 34.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 594, 5 CA ADC § 594

§ 595. Appraisal of Color Vision.

The appraisal of color vision in male pupils pursuant to Education Code sections 49452 and 49455 shall mean a test employing pseudoisochromatic plates. Procedures and criteria of failure as described by the manufacturer shall be used.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 33031, Education Code. Reference: Sections 49452 and 49455, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 1-19-73; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 73, No. 3).

2. Amendment filed 9-23-77; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 77, No. 39).

3. Amendment of section heading and section and new NOTE filed 8-9-2004; operative 8-9-2004 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2004, No. 33).

This database is current through 8/26/22 Register 2022, No. 34.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 595, 5 CA ADC § 595

§ 596. Gross External Observation of the Pupils' Eyes, Visual Performance and Perception.

Gross external observation of the pupils' eyes, visual performance and perception, pursuant to Education Code sections 49452 and 49455, shall mean continuous observation by teachers of the appearance, behavior and complaints of pupils that might indicate vision problems. Continual and regular observation by the teacher where a pupil's school performance begins to give evidence that existence of the problem might be caused by a visual difficulty. Such an evaluation shall be done in consultation with the school nurse.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 33031, Education Code. Reference: Sections 49452 and 49455, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 1-19-73; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 73, No. 3).

2. Amendment filed 9-23-77; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 77, No. 39).

3. Amendment of section and new NOTE filed 8-9-2004; operative 8-9-2004 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2004, No. 33).

4. Amendment of section heading and section filed 12-26-2019; operative 4-1-2020 (Register 2019, No. 52).

This database is current through 8/26/22 Register 2022, No. 34.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 596, 5 CA ADC § 596

§ 597. Appraisals Using Scientifically Validated Photoscreening Tests.

Employees, or trained individuals, as defined in section 591, are permitted to conduct vision screenings using photoscreening tests only under an agreement with, or supervision of, an optometrist or ophthalmologist pursuant to Education Code section 49455.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 33031, Education Code. Reference: Section 49455, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 12-26-2019; operative 4-1-2020 (Register 2019, No. 52).

This database is current through 8/26/22 Register 2022, No. 34.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 597, 5 CA ADC § 597

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 2,

Subchapter 3.5 Leroy Greene Assessment of Academic Achievement,

§ 800. General Testing Provisions.

To be eligible for incentive funding available under the voluntary Pupil Testing Incentive Program pursuant to Education Code Section 60640(a), a school district must certify that it administered an approved test to all pupils enrolled in grades two through ten or in as many of those grades as are operated by the school district during the time specified by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction.

(a) Each pupil enrolled in the school district during the school district's testing period shall be given an achievement test of basic academic skills, including pupils in subgroups that may have been exempt from testing in the past.

(b) School districts shall make whatever arrangements are necessary to ensure that pupils in alternative education programs or programs conducted off-campus are tested including, but not limited to, pupils enrolled in the school district's continuation school, independent study, or community day school.

(c) Make-up sessions shall be scheduled to permit pupils who were not present during the initial test administration to complete the achievement test of basic academic skills.

(d) A parent or guardian may submit to the school a written request to excuse his or her child from any or all parts of the achievement test of basic academic skills. Such requests must be initiated by the parent or guardian and no school official shall solicit such a written request on behalf of any child.

(e) If a pupil would not be tested pursuant to Section 802(a), the school in which the pupil is enrolled shall test the pupil upon the written request of the pupil's parent or guardian that his or her pupil be tested with any or all parts of the achievement test of basic academic skills. Such testing must be conducted during the same testing window during which other pupils in the same grade are tested.

(f) Achievement tests of basic academic skills are to be selected from among those currently approved for use by the California State Board of Education pursuant to Education Code section 60604(d).

(g) School districts shall use more than one approved test, if necessary, to produce scores for all pupils in the required curriculum areas of reading, spelling, written expression, and mathematics.

(h) Pupils in special education programs may be tested with an achievement test of basic academic skills with necessary adaptations or accommodations including, but not limited to, large print, braille, extended time or the use of a reader or scribe. Pupils tested with adaptations or accommodations shall be counted for the $5 per-pupil tested apportionment pursuant to Education Code section 60640(a).

(i) Oral language proficiency assessments do not qualify as achievement tests of basic academic skills.

(j) School districts may administer an achievement test of basic academic skills to pupils enrolled in grades other than two through ten, but such pupils may not be counted for the $5 per-pupil tested apportionment pursuant to Education Code section 60640(a).

(k) Pursuant to Education Code section 60641(a), the State Superintendent of Public Instruction has designated that achievement tests shall be administered during the fall, or beginning of the school year, between 5 and 25 percent of the school district's instructional days, or during the spring, or end of the school year, between 70 and 90 percent of the school district's instructional days.

Credits

NOTE: Authority: Sections 33031 and 60605(g), Education Code. Reference: Sections 60603(a) and (c), 60604(a)(1), (c), and (d), 60605(b), 60640 and 60641, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. New subchapter 3.5 (section 800) and section filed 5-22-96 as an emergency; operative 5-22-96 (Register 96, No. 21). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 9-19-96 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

2. Editorial correction of subsection (b) (Register 96, No. 38).

3. New subchapter 3.5 (section 800) and section refiled 9-19-96 as an emergency; operative 9-20-96 (Register 96, No. 38). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 1-21-97 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

4. Repealed by operation of Government Code section 11346.1(g) (Register 97, No. 24).

5. New subchapter 3.5 (sections 800-802) and section filed 6-11-97; operative 6-11-97 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4(d) (Register 97, No. 24).

This database is current through 8/26/22 Register 2022, No. 34.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 800, 5 CA ADC § 800

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 2, Subchapter 3.75. California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP)

Article 2. Achievement Tests and Any Primary Language Assessment

§ 854.1. Use of Universal Tools, Designated Supports, and Accommodations for English Language Arts (ELA).

(a) All pupils shall be permitted the following embedded universal tools, delivered through an online platform, for all CAASPP achievement tests for ELA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) breaks for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) digital notepad for reading, writing, and listening;

(3) English dictionary for writing (ELA-performance task(s) - full write not short paragraph responses);

(4) English glossary for reading, writing, and listening;

(5) expandable items and passages for reading, writing, and listening;

(6) global notes for writing (ELA-performance task(s) - full write not short paragraph responses)

(7) highlighter for reading, writing, and listening;

(8) keyboard navigation for reading, writing, and listening;

(9) line reader for reading, writing, and listening;

(10) mark for review for reading, writing, and listening;

(11) spell check for specific writing items for ELA;

(12) strikethrough for reading, writing, and listening;

(13) writing tools for specific pupil generated responses for ELA; or

(14) zoom for reading, writing, and listening.

(b) All pupils shall be permitted the following non-embedded universal tools on all CAASPP achievement tests for ELA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) breaks for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) English dictionary for ELA performance task(s) - full write not short paragraph responses;

(3) scratch paper for reading, writing, and listening; or

(4) thesaurus for ELA performance task(s) - full write not short paragraph responses.

(c) All pupils shall be permitted the following embedded designated supports, delivered through an online platform, when determined for use by an educator or a team of educators (with parent/guardian and pupil input as appropriate) or specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for ELA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) color contrast for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) masking for reading, writing, and listening;

(3) mouse pointer size and color for reading, writing, and listening;

(4) streamline for reading, writing, and listening;

(5) text-to-speech for writing, listening, and reading items but not reading passages; or

(6) turn off any universal tool for reading, writing, and listening.

(d) All pupils shall be permitted the following non-embedded designated supports when determined for use by an educator or a team of educators (with parent/guardian and pupil input as appropriate) or as specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on the CAASPP achievement tests for ELA as specified below. Included on the following list of non-embedded designated supports are language support(s) that may be appropriate for English learners or reclassified fluent English proficient pupils:

(1) amplification for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) bilingual dictionary for ELA performance task(s) - full write not short paragraph responses, and writing;

(3) color contrast for reading, writing, and listening;

(4) color overlay for reading, writing, and listening;

(5) magnification for reading, writing, and listening;

(6) medical device for reading, writing, and listening;

(7) noise buffers (e.g., individual carrel or study enclosure, or noise-cancelling headphones) for reading, writing, and listening;

(8) read aloud for writing, listening, and reading items but not reading passages;

(9) scribe for reading and listening;

(10) separate setting for reading, writing, and listening, including most beneficial time of day, special lighting or acoustics, and/or special or adaptive furniture;

(11) simplified test directions for reading, writing, and listening; or

(12) translated test directions for reading, writing, and listening.

(e) The following embedded accommodations, delivered through an online platform, shall be provided when specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for ELA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) American Sign Language for listening;

(2) audio transcript, including braille transcript for listening;

(3) Braille for reading, writing, and listening;

(4) closed captioning for listening; or

(5) text-to-speech for ELA reading passages.

(f) The following non-embedded accommodations shall be provided, when specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for ELA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) alternate response options for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) Braille for paper-pencil tests;

(3) large-print version of a paper-pencil test, when developed and functional;

(4) print on demand for reading, writing, and listening;

(5) read aloud for ELA reading passages;

(6) scribe for writing;

(7) speech-to-text for reading, writing, and listening; or

(8) word prediction for reading, writing, and listening.

(g) If a consortium (in which California is a participant) amends or approves of a universal tool(s), designated support(s), and/or accommodation(s) not listed in subdivisions (a) through (f), the CDE shall approve its use.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Sections 33031, 60605 and 60640, Education Code. Reference: Sections 60605 and 60640, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Sections 200.1 and 300.160.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 1-25-2018; operative 1-25-2018 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4(b)(3) (Register 2018, No. 4).

2. Amendment filed 1-31-2019 as an emergency; operative 1-31-2019 (Register 2019, No. 5). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 7-30-2019 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

3. Certificate of Compliance as to 1-31-2019 order transmitted to OAL 5-30-2019 and filed 7-11-2019 (Register 2019, No. 28).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 854.1, 5 CA ADC § 854.1

§ 854.2. Use of Universal Tools, Designated Supports, and Accommodations for Mathematics.

(a) All pupils shall be permitted the following embedded universal tools, delivered through an online platform, for all CAASPP achievement tests for mathematics as specified below:

(1) breaks;

(2) calculator for specific mathematics items only in grades 6 through 8 and grade 11;

(3) digital notepad;

(4) English glossary;

(5) expandable items and passages;

(6) highlighter;

(7) keyboard navigation;

(8) line reader;

(9) mark for review;

(10) mathematics tools (i.e., embedded ruler and embedded protractor) for specific mathematics items;

(11) strikethrough;

(12) writing tools for specific pupil generated responses; or

(13) zoom.

(b) All pupils shall be permitted the following non-embedded universal tools on all CAASPP achievement tests for mathematics as specified below:

(1) breaks; or

(2) scratch paper.

(c) All pupils shall be permitted the following embedded designated supports, delivered through an online platform, when determined for use by an educator or a team of educators (with parent/guardian and pupil input as appropriate) or as specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for mathematics as specified below. Included on the following list of embedded designated supports are language support(s) that may be appropriate for English learners or reclassified fluent English proficient pupils:

(1) color contrast;

(2) masking;

(3) mouse pointer size and color;

(4) streamline;

(5) text-to-speech for stimuli and items;

(6) translations (glossary);

(7) Spanish translations (stacked) and translated test directions; or

(8) turn off any universal tool.

(d) All pupils shall be permitted the following non-embedded designated supports, when determined for use by an educator or a team of educators (with parent/guardian and pupil input as appropriate) or as specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on the CAASPP achievement tests for mathematics as specified below. Included on the following list of non-embedded designated supports are language support(s) that may be appropriate for English learners or reclassified fluent English proficient students:

(1) amplification;

(2) color contrast;

(3) color overlay;

(4) magnification;

(5) medical device;

(6) noise buffers (e.g., individual carrel or study enclosure, or noise-cancelling headphones);

(7) read aloud for stimuli and items;

(8) read aloud for Spanish stacked translation;

(9) scribe;

(10) separate setting, including most beneficial time of day, special lighting or acoustics, and/or special or adaptive furniture;

(11) simplified test directions;

(12) translated test directions; or

(13) translations (glossary) for mathematics (only consortium-provided glossaries for paper-pencil tests).

(e) The following embedded accommodations, delivered through an online platform, shall be provided, when specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for mathematics as specified below:

(1) American Sign Language; or

(2) Braille.

(f) The following non-embedded accommodations shall be provided when specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for mathematics as specified below:

(1) 100s number table for mathematics beginning in grade 4;

(2) abacus;

(3) alternate response options;

(4) Braille for paper-pencil tests;

(5) calculator for calculator-allowed mathematics items only in grades 6 through 8, and grade 11;

(6) large-print version of a paper-pencil test, when developed and functional;

(7) multiplication table for mathematics beginning in grade 4;

(8) print on demand;

(9) speech-to-text; or

(10) word prediction.

(g) If a consortium (in which California is a participant) amends or approves of a universal tool(s), designated support(s), and/or accommodation(s) not listed in subdivisions (a) through (f), the CDE shall approve its use.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Sections 33031, 60605 and 60640, Education Code. Reference: Sections 60605 and 60640, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Sections 200.1 and 300.160.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 1-25-2018; operative 1-25-2018 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4(b)(3) (Register 2018, No. 4).

2. Amendment filed 1-31-2019 as an emergency; operative 1-31-2019 (Register 2019, No. 5). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 7-30-2019 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

3. Certificate of Compliance as to 1-31-2019 order transmitted to OAL 5-30-2019 and filed 7-11-2019 (Register 2019, No. 28).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 854.2, 5 CA ADC § 854.2

§ 854.3. Use of Universal Tools, Designated Supports, and Accommodations for Science.

(a) All pupils shall be permitted the following embedded universal tools, delivered through an online platform, for the CASTs as specified below:

(1) breaks;

(2) calculator (four function for grade 5 and scientific for grade 8 and high school);

(3) digital notepad;

(4) English glossary;

(5) expandable items;

(6) expandable passages;

(7) highlighter;

(8) keyboard navigation;

(9) line reader;

(10) mark for review;

(11) mathematics tools (e.g., ruler, protractor);

(12) science charts (e.g., calendar, Periodic Table of the Elements, and conversion charts);

(13) science tools (e.g., interactive laboratory equipment, stop watch, static hardness key or tool, etc.);

(14) strikethrough;

(15) writing tools for specific pupil generated responses; or

(16) zoom.

(b) All pupils shall be permitted the following non-embedded universal tools on all CAASPP achievement tests for science as specified below:

(1) breaks; or

(2) scratch paper.

(c) All pupils shall be permitted the following embedded designated supports, delivered through an online platform, when determined for use by an educator or a team of educators (with parent/guardian and pupil input as appropriate) or specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for science as specified below. Included on the following list of embedded designated supports are language support(s) that may be appropriate for English learners or reclassified fluent English proficient pupils:

(1) color contrast;

(2) masking;

(3) mouse pointer size and color;

(4) Spanish translations (stacked);

(5) streamline;

(6) text-to-speech for stimuli and items;

(7) translations (glossary) for the following languages, when developed and functional: Arabic, Cantonese, Hmong, Korean, Mandarin, Punjabi, Russian, Spanish, Tagalog, and Vietnamese; or

(8) turn off any universal tool(s).

(d) All pupils shall be permitted the following non-embedded designated supports, when determined for use by an educator or a team of educators (with parent/guardian and pupil input as appropriate) or specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for science. Included on the following list of non-embedded designated supports are language support(s) that may be appropriate for English learners or reclassified fluent English proficient students:

(1) 100s number table;

(2) amplification;

(3) calculator (four-function for grade 5 and scientific for grade 8 and high school);

(4) color contrast;

(5) color overlay;

(6) magnification;

(7) medical device;

(8) multiplication table;

(9) noise buffers (e.g., individual carrel or study enclosure, or noise-cancelling headphones);

(10) read aloud for stimuli and items;

(11) science charts (state approved only, i.e., calendar, Periodic Table of the Elements, and conversion charts);

(12) scribe;

(13) separate setting, including most beneficial time of day, special lighting or acoustics, and/or special or adaptive furniture;

(14) simplified test directions; or

(15) translated test directions for the following languages, when developed and functional: Arabic, Armenian, Cambodian, Cantonese, Farsi, Hindi, Hmong, Japanese, Korean, Mandarin, Mixteco, Portuguese, Punjabi, Russian, Spanish, Tagalog, Urdu, and Vietnamese.

(e) The following embedded accommodations, delivered through an online platform, shall be provided, when specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for science as specified below:

(1) American Sign Language;

(2) audio transcript, including braille transcript;

(3) Braille; or

(4) closed captioning.

(f) The following non-embedded accommodations shall be provided when specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for science as specified below:

(1) abacus for specific science items;

(2) alternate response options;

(3) print on demand;

(4) speech-to-text; or

(5) word prediction.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Sections 33031, 60605 and 60640, Education Code. Reference: Sections 60605 and 60640, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Sections 200.1 and 300.160.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 1-25-2018; operative 1-25-2018 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4(b)(3) (Register 2018, No. 4).

2. Amendment filed 1-31-2019 as an emergency; operative 1-31-2019 (Register 2019, No. 5). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 7-30-2019 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

3. Certificate of Compliance as to 1-31-2019 order, including repealer of subsection (a)(3) and subsection renumbering, transmitted to OAL 5-30-2019 and filed 7-11-2019; amendments operative 7-11-2019 (Register 2019, No. 28).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 854.3, 5 CA ADC § 854.3

§ 854.4. Use of Universal Tools, Designated Supports, and Accommodations for Primary Language Assessment (PLA).

(a) All pupils shall be permitted the following embedded universal tools, delivered through an online platform, for all CAASPP achievement tests for PLA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) breaks for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) digital notepad for reading, writing, and listening;

(3) dictionary in the language of the assessment for writing (PLA-performance task -- full write not short paragraph responses) -- when developed and functional;

(4) expandable items for reading, writing, and listening;

(5) expandable passages for reading, writing, and listening;

(6) global notes for writing (PLA-performance task(s) -- full write not short paragraph responses) -- when developed and functional;

(7) highlighter for reading, writing, and listening;

(8) keyboard navigation for reading, writing, and listening;

(9) line reader;

(10) mark for review for reading, writing, and listening;

(11) Spanish glossary for specific items;

(12) spell check for specific writing items for PLA -- when developed and functional;

(13) strikethrough for reading, writing, and listening;

(14) writing tools for specific pupil generated responses for PLA; or

(15) zoom for reading, writing, and listening.

(b) All pupils shall be permitted the following non-embedded universal tools on all CAASPP achievement tests for PLA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) breaks for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) dictionary in the language of the assessment for PLA performance task(s) -- full write not short paragraph responses -- when developed and functional;

(3) scratch paper for reading, writing, and listening; or

(4) thesaurus in the language of the assessment for PLA performance task(s) -- full write not short paragraph responses -- when developed and functional.

(c) All pupils shall be permitted the following embedded designated supports, delivered through an online platform, when determined for use by an educator or a team of educators (with parent/guardian and pupil input as appropriate) or specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for PLA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) color contrast for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) masking for reading, writing, and listening;

(3) mouse pointer size and color;

(4) streamline for reading, writing, and listening;

(5) text-to-speech for writing, listening, and reading items but not reading passages; or

(6) turn off any universal tool for reading, writing, and listening.

(d) All pupils shall be permitted the following non-embedded designated supports when determined for use by an educator or a team of educators (with parent/guardian and pupil input as appropriate) or as specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on the CAASPP achievement tests for PLA as specified below. Included on the following list of non-embedded designated supports are language support(s) that may be appropriate for any pupil who can benefit from their use:

(1) amplification;

(2) bilingual dictionary for PLA performance task(s) -- full write not short paragraph responses, and writing -- when developed and functional;

(3) color contrast for reading, writing, and listening;

(4) color overlay for reading, writing, and listening;

(5) magnification for reading, writing, and listening;

(6) medical device;

(7) noise buffers (e.g., individual carrel or study enclosure, or noise-cancelling headphones) for reading, writing, and listening;

(8) read aloud for writing, listening, and reading items but not reading passages;

(9) scribe for reading and listening;

(10) separate setting for reading, writing, and listening, including most beneficial time of day, special lighting or acoustics, and/or special or adaptive furniture; or

(11) simplified test directions for reading, writing, and listening.

(e) The following embedded accommodations, delivered through an online platform, shall be provided when specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for PLA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) Braille for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) closed-captioning;

(3) Spanish audio transcript, including braille transcript (for listening passages); or

(4) text-to-speech for PLA reading passages.

(f) The following non-embedded accommodations shall be provided, when specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan on all CAASPP achievement tests for PLA (including the components of reading, writing, and listening) as specified below:

(1) alternate response options for reading, writing, and listening;

(2) print on demand for reading, writing, and listening;

(3) read aloud for PLA reading passages; or

(4) scribe for writing.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Sections 33031, 60605 and 60640, Education Code. Reference: Sections 60605 and 60640, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Sections 200.1 and 300.160.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 1-25-2018; operative 1-25-2018 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4(b)(3) (Register 2018, No. 4).

2. Amendment filed 1-31-2019 as an emergency; operative 1-31-2019 (Register 2019, No. 5). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 7-30-2019 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

3. Certificate of Compliance as to 1-31-2019 order transmitted to OAL 5-30-2019 and filed 7-11-2019 (Register 2019, No. 28).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 854.4, 5 CA ADC § 854.4

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1. Special Education.

Article 1. General Provisions

§ 3001. Definitions.

In addition to those found in Education Code sections 56020 - 56035, 20 U.S.C. Sections 1401(1) to (35), and 34 C.F.R. Sections 300.4 - 300.45, the following definitions are provided:

(a) “Access” means that the nonpublic, nonsectarian school shall provide State Board of Education (SBE)-adopted, standards-aligned core curriculum and instructional materials for kindergarten and grades 1 to 8 (K-8), inclusive; and provide standards-aligned core curriculum and instructional materials for grades 9 to 12 (9-12), inclusive, used by a local educational agency (LEA) that contracts with the nonpublic school.

(1) The nonpublic, nonsectarian school shall provide each student with a copy of textbooks and other instructional materials used to implement the SBE-adopted core curriculum (K-8) and standards-aligned core curriculum (9-12) in each subject area. As required through the individualized education program (IEP) for each pupil with hearing impairments, vision impairments, severe orthopedic impairments, or any combination thereof, SBE-adopted core curriculum (K-8) and standards-aligned core curriculum (9-12) may be in Braille, large print, recordings, and American Sign Language VideoBooks.

(2) Photocopies of portions of textbooks or instructional materials, or photocopies of entire textbooks or instructional materials to implement SBE-adopted core curriculum (K-8) and standards-aligned core curriculum (9-12) is not sufficient access.

(b) “Applicant” means an individual, firm, partnership, association, or corporation who has made application for certification as a nonpublic, nonsectarian school, or agency.

(c) “Assessment and development of the individualized education program” (IEP) means services described in Education Code sections 56320 et seq. and 56340 et seq.

(d) “CDE” means the California Department of Education.

(e) “Certification” means authorization by the California State Superintendent of Public Instruction (SSPI) for a nonpublic school or nonpublic agency to service individuals with exceptional needs under a contract pursuant to the provisions of Education Code section 56366(d).

(f) “Contracting education agency,” means school district, a SELPA, a charter school participating as a member of a SELPA, or county office of education.

(g) “Credential” means any valid credential, life diploma, or document in special education or Pupil Personnel Services issued by, or under the jurisdiction of, the California SBE prior to 1970 or the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (CTC), which entitles the holder thereof to perform services for which certification qualifications are required.

(h) “Department of Consumer Affairs” means the California Department of Consumer Affairs.

(i) “Dual enrollment” means the concurrent attendance of the individual in a public education agency and a nonpublic school and/or a nonpublic agency.

(j) “Individual Services Agreement” means a document, prepared by the LEA, that specifies the length of time for which special education and related services are to be provided, by nonpublic schools and/or nonpublic agencies, to individuals with exceptional needs.

(k) “Instructional day” shall be the same period of time as constitutes the regular school day for that chronological peer group unless otherwise specified in the IEP.

(l) “License” means a valid nonexpired document issued by a licensing agency within the California Department of Consumer Affairs or other state licensing office authorized to grant licenses and authorizing the bearer of the document to provide certain professional services or refer to themselves using a specified professional title. If a license is not available through an appropriate state licensing agency, a certificate of registration with the appropriate professional organization at the national or state level which has standards established for the certificate that are equivalent to a license, shall be deemed to be a license.

(m) “Linguistically appropriate goals, objectives, and programs” means:

(1)(A) those activities which lead to the development of English language proficiency; and

(B) those instructional systems either at the elementary or secondary level which meet the language development needs of the English language learner.

(2) For individuals whose primary language is other than English, and whose potential for learning a second language, as determined by the IEP team, is severely limited, nothing in this section shall preclude the IEP team from determining that instruction may be provided through an alternative program pursuant to a waiver under Education Code section 311 provided that the IEP team periodically, but not less than annually, reconsiders the individual's ability to receive instruction in the English language.

(n) “Local governing board,” means either district or county board of education.

(o) “Master contract” means the legal document that binds the public education agency and the nonpublic school or nonpublic agency.

(p) “Nonsectarian” means a private, nonpublic school or agency that is not owned, operated, controlled by, or formally affiliated with a religious group or sect, whatever might be the actual character of the education program or the primary purpose of the facility and whose articles of incorporation and/or by-laws stipulate that the assets of such agency or corporation will not inure to the benefit of a religious group.

(q) “Primary language” means the language other than English, or other mode of communication, the person first learned, or the language which is used in the person's home.

(r) “Qualified” means that a person has met federal and state certification, licensing, registration, or other comparable requirements which apply to the area in which he or she is providing special education or related services, or, in the absence of such requirements, the state-education-agency-approved or recognized requirements, and adheres to the standards of professional practice established in federal and state law or regulation, including the standards contained in the California Business and Professions Code and the scope of practice as defined by the licensing or credentialing body. Nothing in this definition shall be construed as restricting the activities or services of a graduate needing direct hours leading to licensure, or of a student teacher or intern leading to a graduate degree at an accredited or approved college or university, as authorized by state laws or regulations.

(s) “Specialized physical health care services” means those health services, including catheterization, gastric tube feeding, suctioning or other services prescribed by the individual's licensed physician and surgeon requiring medically related training for the individual who performs the services and which are necessary during the school day to enable the individual to attend school.

(t) “Specified education placement” means that unique combination of facilities, personnel, location or equipment necessary to provide instructional services to an individual with exceptional needs, as specified in the IEP, in any one or a combination of public, private, home and hospital, or residential settings. The IEP team shall document its rationale for placement in other than the pupil's school and classroom in which the pupil would otherwise attend if the pupil were not disabled. The documentation shall indicate why the pupil's disability prevents his or her needs from being met in a less restrictive environment even with the use of supplementary aids and services.

(u) “SSPI” means the California State Superintendent of Public Instruction.

(v) “Temporary physical disability” means a disability incurred while an individual was in a regular education class and which at the termination of the temporary physical disability, the individual can, without special intervention, reasonably be expected to return to his or her regular education class.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 56100, Education Code. Reference: Sections 33300, 49423.5 and 56320, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Sections 300.17, 300.28, 300.34, 300.39 and 300.320.

HISTORY

1. Amendment filed 3-21-88; operative 4-20-88 (Register 88, No. 15).

2. New subsections (c)-(f)(8) and (y) and subsection relettering, amendment of newly designated subsections (j), (k), (p)(1)(B)-(p)(3), (r), (s), (v), (z) and (aa), and amendment of opening paragraph and NOTE filed 4-20-93; operative 5-20-93 (Register 93, No. 17).

3. Editorial correction of subsection (b) (Register 96, No. 8).

4. Amendment of subsections (f), (f)(7), (j) and (y) filed 2-23-96 as an emergency; operative 2-23-96 (Register 96, No. 8). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 6-22-96 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

5. Editorial correction of subsection (j) (Register 96, No. 32).

6. Certificate of Compliance as to 2-23-96 order transmitted to OAL 6-21-96 and filed 8-5-96 (Register 96, No. 32).

7. Amendment of section and NOTE filed 7-18-97 as an emergency; operative 7-18-97 (Register 97, No. 29). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 11-17-97 or emergency amendments will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

8. Amendment of section and NOTE refiled 11-14-97 as an emergency; operative 11-14-97 (Register 97, No. 46). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 3-16-98 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

9. Reinstatement of section and NOTE as they existed prior to 7-18-97 emergency amendment by operation of Government Code section 11346.1(f) (Register 98, No. 16).

10. Amendment of section and NOTE filed 4-16-98 as an emergency; operative 4-16-98 (Register 98, No. 16). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 8-14-98 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

11. Reinstatement of section and NOTE as they existed prior to 4-16-98 emergency amendment by operation of Government Code section 11346.1(f) (Register 98, No. 34).

12. Amendment of first paragraph, new subsections (c), (d), (n), (v), (w), (z), (aa), (ae), (ag) and (a)(k), subsection relettering, amendment of newly designated subsections (f), (g), (i), (o), (q), (r), (s)(2), (x), (y), (ab), (ac) and (ad), and amendment of NOTE filed 8-19-98 as an emergency; operative 8-19-98 (Register 98, No. 34). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 12-17-98 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

13. Reinstatement of section and NOTE as they existed prior to 8-19-98 emergency amendment by operation of Government Code section 11346.1(f) (Register 98, No. 52).

14. Amendment of first paragraph, new subsections (c), (d), (n), (v), (w), (z), (aa), (ae), (ag) and (ak), subsection relettering, amendment of newly designated subsections (f), (g), (i), (o), (q), (r) and (s)(1)(A)-(B), repealer of subsection (s)(2), subsection renumbering, amendment of newly designated subsections (s)(2), (x), (y), (ab), (ac), (ad) and amendment of NOTE filed 12-21-98 as an emergency; operative 12-21-98 (Register 98, No. 52). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 4-20-99 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

15. Repealer and new section filed 3-25-99 as an emergency; operative 3-25-99 (Register 99, No. 13). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 7-23-99 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

16. Certificate of Compliance as to 3-25-99 order, including amendment of section and NOTE, transmitted to OAL 7-23-99 and filed 9-1-99 (Register 99, No. 36).

17. Amendment of section and NOTE filed 3-27-2009; operative 4-26-2009 (Register 2009, No. 13).

18. Amendment of section and NOTE filed 5-5-2014; operative 7-1-2014 (Register 2014, No. 19).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 3001, 5 CA ADC § 3001

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1. Special Education

Article 3. Identification, Referral, and Assessment

§ 3025. Assessment Option: Referral to State Schools for Further Assessment.

(a) Prior to referring a pupil for further assessment to California Schools for the Deaf or Blind or the Diagnostic Centers, districts, SELPAs, counties, or other agencies providing education services, shall first conduct assessments at the local level within the capabilities of that agency. Results of local assessments shall be provided to parent(s) and shall state the reasons for referral to the State School. Results of local assessments shall accompany the referral request.

(b) The Schools for the Deaf and Blind and the Diagnostic Centers shall conduct assessments pursuant to the provisions of Education Code section 56320, et seq.

(c) A representative of the district, SELPAs, or county IEP team shall participate in the staffing meeting and shall receive the final report and recommendations. Conference calls are acceptable forms of participation, provided that written reports and recommendations have been received by the representative prior to the meeting.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 56100, Education Code. Reference: Section 56326, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. Amendment filed 3-21-88; operative 4-20-88 (Register 88, No. 15).

2. Change without regulatory effect amending section and NOTE filed 9-27-2012 pursuant to section 100, title 1, California Code of Regulations (Register 2012, No. 39).

3. Amendment of subsections (a) and (b) filed 5-5-2014; operative 7-1-2014 (Register 2014, No. 19).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 3025, 5 CA ADC § 3025

§ 3027. Hearing and Vision Screening.

All pupils being assessed for initial and three-year review for special education services shall have had a hearing and vision screening, unless parental permission was denied.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 56100, Education Code. Reference: Sections 56320, 56321 and 56327, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Section 300.304.

HISTORY

1. Change without regulatory effect amending NOTE filed 9-27-2012 pursuant to section 100, title 1, California Code of Regulations (Register 2012, No. 39).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 3027, 5 CA ADC § 3027

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1. Special Education

Article 3.1. Individuals with Exceptional Needs

§ 3030. Eligibility Criteria. 

(a) A child shall qualify as an individual with exceptional needs, pursuant to Education Code section 56026, if the results of the assessment as required by Education Code section 56320 demonstrate that the degree of the child's impairment as described in subdivisions (b)(1) through (b)(13) requires special education in one or more of the program options authorized by Education Code section 56361. The decision as to whether or not the assessment results demonstrate that the degree of the child's impairment requires special education shall be made by the IEP team, including personnel in accordance with Education Code section 56341(b). The IEP team shall take into account all the relevant material which is available on the child. No single score or product of scores shall be used as the sole criterion for the decision of the IEP team as to the child's eligibility for special education.

(b) The disability terms used in defining an individual with exceptional needs are as follows:

(1) Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three, and adversely affecting a child's educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences.

(A) Autism does not apply if a child's educational performance is adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance, as defined in subdivision (b)(4) of this section.

(B) A child who manifests the characteristics of autism after age three could be identified as having autism if the criteria in subdivision (b)(1) of this section are satisfied.

(2) Deaf-blindness means concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.

(3) Deafness means a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification that adversely affects a child's educational performance.

(4) Emotional disturbance means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance:

(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.

(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.

(F) Emotional disturbance includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance under subdivision (b)(4) of this section.

(5) Hearing impairment means an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance but that is not included under the definition of deafness in this section.

(6) Intellectual disability means significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period that adversely affects a child's educational performance.

(7) Multiple disabilities means concomitant impairments, such as intellectual disability-blindness or intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments. “Multiple disabilities” does not include deaf-blindness.

(8) Orthopedic impairment means a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).

(9) Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment that:

(A) Is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and

(B) Adversely affects a child's educational performance.

(10) Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may have manifested itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The basic psychological processes include attention, visual processing, auditory processing, phonological processing, sensory-motor skills, cognitive abilities including association, conceptualization and expression.

(A) Specific learning disabilities do not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of intellectual disability, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

(B) In determining whether a pupil has a specific learning disability, the public agency may consider whether a pupil has a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement in oral expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading comprehension, mathematical calculation, or mathematical reasoning. The decision as to whether or not a severe discrepancy exists shall take into account all relevant material which is available on the pupil. No single score or product of scores, test or procedure shall be used as the sole criterion for the decisions of the IEP team as to the pupil's eligibility for special education. In determining the existence of a severe discrepancy, the IEP team shall use the following procedures:

1. When standardized tests are considered to be valid for a specific pupil, a severe discrepancy is demonstrated by: first, converting into common standard scores, using a mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15, the achievement test score and the intellectual ability test score to be compared; second, computing the difference between these common standard scores; and third, comparing this computed difference to the standard criterion which is the product of 1.5 multiplied by the standard deviation of the distribution of computed differences of students taking these achievement and ability tests. A computed difference which equals or exceeds this standard criterion, adjusted by one standard error of measurement, the adjustment not to exceed 4 common standard score points, indicates a severe discrepancy when such discrepancy is corroborated by other assessment data which may include other tests, scales, instruments, observations and work samples, as appropriate.

2. When standardized tests are considered to be invalid for a specific pupil, the discrepancy shall be measured by alternative means as specified on the assessment plan.

3. If the standardized tests do not reveal a severe discrepancy as defined in subdivisions 1. or 2. above, the IEP team may find that a severe discrepancy does exist, provided that the team documents in a written report that the severe discrepancy between ability and achievement exists as a result of a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes. The report shall include a statement of the area, the degree, and the basis and method used in determining the discrepancy. The report shall contain information considered by the team which shall include, but not be limited to:

(i) Data obtained from standardized assessment instruments;

(ii) Information provided by the parent;

(iii) Information provided by the pupil's present teacher;

(iv) Evidence of the pupil's performance in the regular and/or special education classroom obtained from observations, work samples, and group test scores;

(v) Consideration of the pupil's age, particularly for young children; and

(vi) Any additional relevant information.

4. A severe discrepancy shall not be primarily the result of limited school experience or poor school attendance.

(C) Whether or not a pupil exhibits a severe discrepancy as described in subdivision (b)(10)(B) above, a pupil may be determined to have a specific learning disability if:

1. The pupil does not achieve adequately for the pupil's age or to meet State-approved grade-level standards in one or more of the following areas, when provided with learning experiences and instruction appropriate for the pupil's age or State-approved grade-level standards:

(i) Oral expression.

(ii) Listening comprehension.

(iii) Written expression.

(iv) Basic reading skill.

(v) Reading fluency skills.

(vi) Reading comprehension.

(vii) Mathematics calculation.

(viii) Mathematics problem solving, and

2.(i) The pupil does not make sufficient progress to meet age or State-approved grade-level standards in one or more of the areas identified in subdivision (b)(10)(C)(1) of this section when using a process based on the pupil's response to scientific, research-based intervention; or

(ii) The pupil exhibits a pattern of strengths and weaknesses in performance, achievement, or both, relative to age, State-approved grade-level standards, or intellectual development, that is determined by the group to be relevant to the identification of a specific learning disability, using appropriate assessments, consistent with 34 C.F.R. sections 300.304 and 300.305; and

3. The findings under subdivisions (b)(10)(C)(1) and (2) of this section are not primarily the result of:

(i) A visual, hearing, or motor disability;

(ii) Intellectual disability;

(iii) Emotional disturbance;

(iv) Cultural factors;

(v) Environmental or economic disadvantage; or (vi) Limited English proficiency.

4. To ensure that underachievement in a pupil suspected of having a specific learning disability is not due to lack of appropriate instruction in reading or math, the group making the decision must consider:

(i) Data that demonstrate that prior to, or as a part of, the referral process, the pupil was provided appropriate instruction in regular education settings, delivered by qualified personnel; and

(ii) Data-based documentation of repeated assessments of achievement at reasonable intervals, reflecting formal assessment of student progress during instruction, which was provided to the pupil's parents.

5. In determining whether a pupil has a specific learning disability, the public agency must ensure that the pupil is observed in the pupil's learning environment in accordance with 34 C.F.R. section 300.310. In the case of a child of less than school age or out of school, a qualified professional must observe the child in an environment appropriate for a child of that age. The eligibility determination must be documented in accordance with 34 C.F.R. section 300.311.

(11) A pupil has a language or speech disorder as defined in Education Code section 56333, and it is determined that the pupil's disorder meets one or more of the following criteria:

(A) Articulation disorder.

1. The pupil displays reduced intelligibility or an inability to use the speech mechanism which significantly interferes with communication and attracts adverse attention. Significant interference in communication occurs when the pupil's production of single or multiple speech sounds on a developmental scale of articulation competency is below that expected for his or her chronological age or developmental level, and which adversely affects educational performance.

2. A pupil does not meet the criteria for an articulation disorder if the sole assessed disability is an abnormal swallowing pattern.

(B) Abnormal Voice. A pupil has an abnormal voice which is characterized by persistent, defective voice quality, pitch, or loudness.

(C) Fluency Disorders. A pupil has a fluency disorder when the flow of verbal expression including rate and rhythm adversely affects communication between the pupil and listener.

(D) Language Disorder. The pupil has an expressive or receptive language disorder when he or she meets one of the following criteria:

1. The pupil scores at least 1.5 standard deviations below the mean, or below the 7th percentile, for his or her chronological age or developmental level on two or more standardized tests in one or more of the following areas of language development: morphology, syntax, semantics, or pragmatics. When standardized tests are considered to be invalid for the specific pupil, the expected language performance level shall be determined by alternative means as specified on the assessment plan, or

2. The pupil scores at least 1.5 standard deviations below the mean or the score is below the 7th percentile for his or her chronological age or developmental level on one or more standardized tests in one of the areas listed in subdivision (A) and displays inappropriate or inadequate usage of expressive or receptive language as measured by a representative spontaneous or elicited language sample of a minimum of 50 utterances. The language sample must be recorded or transcribed and analyzed, and the results included in the assessment report. If the pupil is unable to produce this sample, the language, speech, and hearing specialist shall document why a fifty utterance sample was not obtainable and the contexts in which attempts were made to elicit the sample. When standardized tests are considered to be invalid for the specific pupil, the expected language performance level shall be determined by alternative means as specified in the assessment plan.

(12) Traumatic brain injury means an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child's educational performance. Traumatic brain injury applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem-solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech.

(A) Traumatic brain injury does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.

(13) Visual impairment including blindness means an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 56100, Education Code. Reference: Sections 56026, 56320, 56333 and 56337, Education Code; 20 U.S.C. Sections 1401(3)(A) and 1414(a) and (b); and 34 C.F.R. Sections 300.8, 300.300, 300.301, 300.304, 300.305, 300.306, 300.307, 300.308, 300.309 and 300.311.

HISTORY

1. New Article 3.1 (Sections 3030 and 3031) filed 1-31-83; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 83, No. 6).

2. Amendment filed 2-11-86; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 86, No. 7).

3. Amendment filed 3-21-88; operative 4-20-88 (Register 88, No. 15).

4. Amendment of section and NOTE filed 5-5-2014; operative 7-1-2014 (Register 2014, No. 19).

5. Change without regulatory effect amending subsection (b)(10) filed 12-8-2015 pursuant to subsection (a)(6) of section 100, title 1, California Code of Regulations; effective 1-1-2016 (Register 2015, No. 50).

This database is current through 9/16/22 Register 2022, No. 37.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 3030, 5 CA ADC § 3030

§ 3031. Additional Eligibility Criteria for Individuals with Exceptional Needs--Age Birth to Younger Than Three Years.

(a) A child, age birth to younger than three years, shall qualify as an individual with exceptional needs pursuant to Education Code section 56026(c)(1) and Government Code section 95014 if the Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) team determines that the child meets the following criteria:

(1) Is identified as an individual with exceptional needs pursuant to section 3030, and

(2) Is identified as requiring intensive special education and services by meeting one of the following criteria:

(A) The child has a developmental delay as determined by a significant difference between the expected level of development for their age and their current level of functioning in one or more of the following five developmental areas:

1. cognitive development;

2. physical and motor development, including vision and hearing;

3. communication development;

4. social or emotional development; or

5. adaptive development.

A significant difference is defined as a 33 percent delay in one developmental area before 24 months of age, or, at 24 months of age or older, either a delay of 50 percent in one developmental area or a 33 percent delay in two or more developmental areas.

(B) The child has a disabling medical condition or congenital syndrome which the IFSP team determines has a high predictability of requiring intensive special education and services.

(b) Programs for individuals with exceptional needs younger than three years of age are permissive in accordance with Education Code sections 56001(c) and (d) except for those programs mandated pursuant to Education Code section 56425.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 56100, Education Code. Reference: Sections 56001 and 56026, Education Code; Section 95014, Government Code; 20 U.S.C. Section 1401(3)(B), 20 U.S.C. Section 1432(5); and 34 C.F.R. Sections 303.21, 300.25.

HISTORY

1. Amendment of subsection (a)(2) filed 3-21-88; operative 4--20-88 (Register 88, No. 15).

2. Amendment of section heading, section and NOTE filed 5-5-2014; operative 7-1-2014 (Register 2014, No. 19).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 3031, 5 CA ADC § 3031

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1. Special Education

Article 5. Implementation (Program Components)

§ 3051.7. Vision Services.

(a) Vision services may include:

(1) Adaptations in curriculum, media, and the environment, as well as instruction in special skills.

(2) Consultative services to pupils, parents, teachers, and other school personnel.

(b) An assessment of and provision for services to visually impaired pupils may be conducted by an eye specialist who has training and expertise in low vision disabilities and has available the appropriate low vision aids for the purpose of assessment. The eye specialist may provide consultation to the pupil, parents, teacher and other school personnel as may be requested by an IEP team.

(c) Procedures which may be utilized by qualified personnel are those procedures authorized by federal and state laws and regulations and performed in accordance with these laws and regulations and standards of the profession.

(d) For the purposes of this section, and eye specialist shall mean a licensed optometrist, ophthalmologist, or other licensed physician and surgeon who has training and expertise in low vision disabilities.

(e) Vision services shall be provided only by personnel who possess:

(1) a license as an Optometrist, Ophthalmologist, Physician or Surgeon, issued by a licensing agency within the Department of Consumer Affairs and authorizing the licensee to provide the services rendered, or

(2) a valid credential authorizing vision instruction or services.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Sections 56100 and 56366.1, Education Code. Reference: Sections 49422 and 56363, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Sections 300.34 and 300.156(b)(1).

HISTORY

1. Amendment of subsection (a) and new subsections (b)-(d) filed 3-21-88; operative 4-20-88 (Register 88, No. 15).

2. Amendment of section and NOTE filed 5-5-2014; operative 7-1-2014 (Register 2014, No. 19).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 3051.7, 5 CA ADC § 3051.7

§ 3051.75. Vision Therapy.

(a) Vision therapy may include: Remedial and/or developmental instruction provided directly by or in consultation with the optometrist, ophthalmologist, or other qualified licensed physician and surgeon provided ongoing care to the individual.

(b) Vision therapy shall be provided by an optometrist, ophthalmologist, or by appropriate qualified school personnel when prescribed by a licensed optometrist, ophthalmologist, or other qualified licensed physician and surgeon.

(c) Procedures which may be utilized by qualified personnel are those procedures authorized by federal and state laws and regulations and performed in accordance with these laws and regulations and standards of the profession.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Sections 56100 and 56366.1, Education Code. Reference: Section 56363, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Sections 300.34 and 300.156(b)(1).

HISTORY

1. Change without regulatory effect amending NOTE filed 9-27-2012 pursuant to section 100, title 1, California Code of Regulations (Register 2012, No. 39).

2. Amendment of NOTE filed 5-5-2014; operative 7-1-2014 (Register 2014, No. 19).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 3051.75, 5 CA ADC § 3051.75

§ 3051.22. Transcription Services.

Transcribers for visually impaired pupils shall have a certificate issued by the Library of Congress as a Braille Transcriber.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Sections 56100 and 56366.1, Education Code. Reference: Section 56363, Education Code; and 34 C.F.R. Sections 300.34 and 300.156(b)(1).

HISTORY

1. New section filed 5-5-2014; operative 7-1-2014 (Register 2014, No. 19).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 3051.22, 5 CA ADC § 3051.22

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 11, Subchapter 7.5. California English Language Development Test

Article 3. Test Variations/Accommodations/Modifications

§ 11516. Variations.

(a) School district may provide all pupils the following variations:

(1) Test directions that are simplified or clarified in English for the Reading and Writing sections.

(2) Sufficient time to complete the test as provided in the directions for test administration.

(b) School districts may provide all pupils the following variations if regularly used in the classroom:

(1) Special or adaptive furniture;

(2) Special lighting or acoustics, visual magnifying, or audio amplification equipment;

(3) An individual carrel or study enclosure;

(4) Covered overlay, masks, or other means to maintain visual attention to the test consistent with contractor's test directions;

(5) Test individual in a separate room provided that the pupil is directly supervised by an employee of the school district or nonpublic school who has signed the Test Security Affidavit; and

(6) Manually Coded English or American Sign Language to present directions for administration (does not apply to test questions).

(c) If a school district proposed the use of a variation on the test that is not listed in this section, 11516.5, or 11516.6, the school district may submit a request to the department for review of proposed variation in administering the test.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 33031, Education Code. Reference: Sections 306, 313 and 37200, Education Code; and 20 USC Section 6311.

HISTORY

1. New article 3 (sections 11516-11516.5) and section filed 10-4-2001; operative 11-3-2001 (Register 2001, No. 40).

2. Amendment of article heading and section heading, repealer and new section and amendment of NOTE filed 6-9-2005; operative 6-9-2005 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2005, No. 23).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 11516, 5 CA ADC § 11516

§ 11516.5. Accommodations.

(a) Pupils with disabilities shall be permitted to take the test with those accommodations listed in subsections (b) through (e), if specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 plan for use on the test, standardized testing, or for use during classroom instruction and assessments.

(b) Presentation accommodations:

(1) Braille transcriptions provided by the test contractor;

(2) Large print versions reformatted from regular print version;

(3) Test items enlarged through electronic means;

(4) Audio or oral presentation of questions or items for the writing section;

(5) Use of Manually Coded English or American Sign Language to present test questions for the writing section;

(6) Test over more than one day for a test or test part to be administered in a single setting;

(7) Supervised breaks within a section of the test; and

(8) Administration of the test at the most beneficial time of day to the student.

(c) Response accommodations:

(1) For grades 3-12, Listening, Reading and Writing sections, student marks responses in test booklet and the responses are transferred to the answer document by a school or school district employee who has signed the Test Security Affidavit;

(2) For grades 2-12, Listening, Reading and Writing sections, responses dictated to a scribe for selected response items or multiple-choice items;

(3) For kindergarten and grades 1-12, Speaking section, responses dictated to a scribe for selected response items or multiple-choice items;

(4) For the Writing section, responses dictated to a scribe, audio recorder or speech to text converter and the pupil indicates all spelling and language conventions; and

(5) For the Writing section, use word processing software with the spell and grammar check tools turned off.

(d) For the Writing section, use of an assistive device that does not interfere with the independent work of the pupil.

(e) Setting accommodations include:

(1) Test at home or in hospital, by a test examiner.

(f) If the eligible pupil's or adult student's IEP team or Section 504 plan proposes a variation for use on the test that has not been listed in this section, 11516, or 11516.6, the school district may submit a request to the department for review of the proposed variation in administering the test.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 33031, Education Code. Reference: Sections 306(a), 313 and 37200, Education Code; and 20 USC Section 6311.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 10-4-2001; operative 11-3-2001 (Register 2001, No. 40).

2. Amendment of section heading, section and NOTE filed 6-9-2005; operative 6-9-2005 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2005, No. 23).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 11516.5, 5 CA ADC § 11516.5

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 11, Subchapter 7.6. English Language Proficiency Assessments for California (Elpac)

Article 3. Elpac Resources

§ 11518.35. Use of Universal Tools, Designated Supports, and Accommodations.

(a) An LEA may provide all pupils with one or more of the following embedded universal tools, delivered through the online ELPAC test delivery system, for any of the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing:

(1) Breaks between the contractor-identified test sections, including administering separate test sections on separate days;

(2) Digital notepad;

(3) Expandable items;

(4) Expandable passages;

(5) Highlighter;

(6) Keyboard navigation;

(7) Liner reader;

(8) Mark for review;

(9) Strikethrough;

(10) Writing tools; and

(11) Zoom.

(b) An LEA may provide all pupils with one or more of the following non-embedded universal tools on the ELPAC for any of the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing:

(1) Breaks, including testing over more than one day, between the test contractor-identified test sections;

(2) Scratch paper;

(3) Oral clarification of test directions by the test examiner in English;

(4) Pupil use of highlighter(s) in the test book for grades two through twelve;

(5) Pupil use of marking in the test book for grades three through twelve (non-highlighter).

(6) Line reader;

(7) Mark for review;

(8) Strikethrough; and

(9) Test navigation assistant.

(c) An LEA shall provide eligible pupils one or more of the following embedded designated supports, delivered through the online ELPAC test delivery system, for the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, only as described below, if specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan, or for which need is indicated as described in section 11518(i):

(1) Color contrast;

(2) Masking;

(3) Mouse pointer;

(4) Noise buffers;

(5) Pause or replay the audio during the administration of test stimuli and questions for the listening domain;

(6) Pause or replay the audio during the administration of test stimuli and questions for the speaking domain;

(7) Print on demand;

(8) Streamline; and

(9) Turn off any universal tool(s).

(d) An LEA shall provide eligible pupils one or more of the following non-embedded designated supports on the ELPAC for the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, only as described below, if specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan, or for which need is indicated as described in section 11518(i):

(1) Amplification;

(2) Color contrast;

(3) Color overlay;

(4) Designated interface assistant;

(5) Magnification;

(6) Masking;

(7) Medical supports;

(8) Noise buffers (e.g., individual carrel or study enclosure, or noise-cancelling headphones);

(9) Pause or replay the audio during the administration of test stimuli and questions for the listening domain;

(10) Pause or replay the audio during the administration of test stimuli and questions for the speaking domain;

(11) Read aloud items for writing domain;

(12) Separate setting (e.g., most beneficial time, special lighting or acoustics, adaptive furniture);

(13) Simplified test directions;

(14) Translated test directions; and

(15) Manually Coded English or American Sign Language (ASL) to present test directions for administration (does not apply to test questions).

(e) An LEA shall provide eligible pupils one or more of the following embedded accommodations, delivered through the online ELPAC test delivery system, for the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, only as described below, if specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan:

(1) American Sign Language (ASL) or Manually Coded English for test questions that assess the domains of listening, speaking, and writing, presentation of, and responses to, test questions. Pupil responses must be transcribed into the test delivery system by the ELPAC test examiner or scribe;

(2) Audio transcript (includes braille transcript);

(3) Braille (embossed and refreshable);

(4) Closed captioning; and

(5) Text to speech for test directions (in English) in all domains as well as for the listening, speaking, and writing stimuli and test items.

(f) An LEA shall provide eligible pupils with a disability with the following non-embedded accommodations on the ELPAC for the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing, only as described below, if specified in the pupil's IEP or Section 504 Plan:

(1) Alternate response options (paper-based and computer-based administration);

(2) American Sign Language (ASL) or Manually Coded English for test questions that assess the domains of listening, speaking, and writing, as well as for presentation of and responses to, test questions via contractor provided videos. Pupil responses must be transcribed into the answer book by the ELPAC test examiner or scribe;

(3) Use of audio transcript(s)/written script(s) by the test examiner, for the listening domain using streamed audio, for pupils for whom streamed audio is not accessible;

(4) Braille (embossed for paper-pencil test);

(5) Braille test materials provided by the test contractor;

(6) Large print versions reformatted from regular print version;

(7) For test questions that assess the domains of listening, reading, or writing, transfer of pupil responses marked in the test book to the answer book by a scribe who has electronically agreed to an ELPAC Test Security Affidavit;

(8) Responses dictated to a scribe for selected response items, including multiple-choice items;

(9) Speech-to-text for test questions that assess the domain of writing;

(10) For test questions that assess the domain of writing, use of word processing software with the spell and grammar check tools turned off;

(11) Supervised breaks within a section of the test;

(12) For test questions that assess the domains of listening, speaking, and writing, use of an assistive device that does not interfere with the independent work of the pupil. Pupil responses must be transcribed into the answer book by the ELPAC test examiner or scribe; and

(13) Testing at home or in the hospital by a test examiner.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 33031, Education Code. Reference: Sections 306, 313 and 60810, Education Code; and 20 U.S.C. Sections 1412, 6311, 6312, 6821, 6823, 6825 and 6826.

HISTORY

1. New article 4 (section 11518.35) and section filed 6-5-2017; operative 10-1-2017 (Register 2017, No. 23).

2. Amendment filed 8-3-2018 as an emergency; operative 8-3-2018 (Register 2018, No. 31). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 1-30-2019 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

3. Certificate of Compliance as to 8-3-2018 order transmitted to OAL 11-16-2018 and filed 12-31-2018 (Register 2019, No. 1).

4. Amendment filed 8-1-2019 as an emergency; operative 8-1-2019 (Register 2019, No. 31). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 1-28-2020 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

5. Amendment refiled 1-17-2020 as an emergency; operative 1-29-2020 (Register 2020, No. 3). A Certificate of Compliance must be transmitted to OAL by 4-28-2020 or emergency language will be repealed by operation of law on the following day.

6. Certificate of Compliance as to 1-17-2020 order transmitted to OAL 12-12-2019 and filed 1-27-2020; Certificate of Compliance operative 1-30-2020 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4(b)(2) (Register 2020, No. 5).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 11518.35, 5 CA ADC § 11518.35

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 14, Subchapter 5. Allowances for Pupil Transportation* (Refs & Annos)

Article 1. Definitions

§ 15243. Physically Handicapped Minors.

The definitions contained in Section 3600 for deaf, severely hard of hearing, blind, partially seeing, aphasic, and orthopedic or other health impaired minor and pupil handicapped in mobility apply with respect to allowances for transportation required by Education Code Sections 41863, 41864, 41866.

Credits

HISTORY

1. Amendment filed 9-23-77; effective thirtieth day thereafter (Register 77, No. 39).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 15243, 5 CA ADC § 15243

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 6 California Community Colleges, Chapter 7, Subchapter 1. Disabled Student Programs and Services

Article 1. Reports, Plans and Program Requirements

§ 56035. Blind and Low Vision.

Blindness and low vision is defined as a level of vision that limits the student's ability to access the educational process.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Sections 67312, 70901 and 84850, Education Code. Reference: Sections 67310-67312 and 84850, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 9-17-2015; operative 10-17-2015. Submitted to OAL for printing only pursuant to Education Code section 70901.5 (Register 2015, No. 38).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 56035, 5 CA ADC § 56035

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 1, Chapter 18, Subchapter 2. State Special Schools Admission Process

Article 2. California School for the Blind

§ 17664. Definitions.

(a) An “applicant” includes “blind or visually impaired applicant,” and “deaf-blind applicant” and is a pupil between the age of 3 through 21 whose primary disability is a severe sensory loss which limits their ability to access the general education curriculum and who seeks admission into California School for the Blind's (CSB) educational program.

(b) “Assessment of suitability for placement” is the period of evaluation and review for purposes of determining whether the CSB is the appropriate placement for an applicant.

(c) “Enrollment” is the registration of the applicant into CSB's educational program.

(d) “Severe sensory loss” is a loss of vision, or vision and hearing combined, that severely affects the pupil's ability to access the general education or alternative curriculum and causes difficulty to such an extent that it adversely affects his/her educational performance requiring the services of personnel trained to work with blind, visually impaired or deaf-blind children.

(e) “Temporary assignment” is an applicant's presence at the School for purposes of completing an assessment of suitability for placement at the school. Temporary assignment shall not exceed the time limits set forth in Education Code section 56344(a), and does not guarantee admission. For purposes of stay put, the temporary assignment shall not constitute the last agreed upon placement.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 59020, Education Code. Reference: 5 CCR Section 3030(a); Section 56342(a), Education Code; and 34 CFR Section 300.555.

HISTORY

1. New article 2 (sections 17664-17667) and section filed 8-13-2007; operative 8-13-2007 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2007, No. 33).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 17664, 5 CA ADC § 17664

§ 17665. Admission Process for the California School for the Blind (CSB)

For purposes of determining whether an applicant is qualified for enrollment in CSB, the following process shall be followed:

(a) The school district of residence (LEA) shall refer an applicant to CSB by submitting an application packet to CSB.

(b) The completed application packet must be received by CSB within 60 calendar days of the referral. It is the responsibility of the LEA to complete the application packet and submit it to CSB. Applications not completed within 60 days of the referral shall be returned to the applicant's district of residence (LEA), and the applicant shall not be assessed for suitability of placement at CSB.

(c) The Application shall contain the following information, assessments and reports:

(1) The last three years of IEP or IFSP if completed;

(2) An Ophthalmologic or optometric assessment completed within one year of the date of the application;

(3) The current assessments and/or reports prepared pursuant to Education Code sections 56320, et seq. and 56352, and as required to comply with Education Code section 56381; and

(4) Any additional assessments and/or reports dated within two years of the date of the application of admission which document:

(A) The impact of the applicant's vision or vision and hearing loss,

(B) The applicant's inability to visually or visually and auditorily access the general education curriculum; and

(C) Any other disabilities, conditions, or behaviors that may affect the applicant's ability to access the general education curriculum.

(d) Once a completed application has been received, CSB shall initiate and complete an assessment of suitability for placement at CSB, in accordance with Education Code section 56344. It is the sole responsibility of the applicant's district of residence (LEA) to ensure compliance with Education Code section 56321 prior to CSB's commencement of the applicant's assessment for suitability for placement. This assessment plan may include temporary assignment at CSB for purposes of determining eligibility for enrollment in the day or residential program and should include any necessary and appropriate amendments to the IEP to ensure appropriate services during this temporary assignment.

(e) Prior to the completion of the assessment of suitability for placement at CSB, the applicant's IEP team, including the appropriate CSB personnel, shall meet to determine the appropriate placement. The IEP team may not make a determination of placement at CSB without the agreement of CSB personnel.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 59020, Education Code. Reference: 5 CCR Section 3030(a); Section 56342(a), Education Code; and 34 CFR Section 300.555.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 8-13-2007; operative 8-13-2007 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2007, No. 33).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 17665, 5 CA ADC § 17665

§ 17666. Eligibility for Enrollment in CSB's Day Program.

Applicants may be considered for admission if they can demonstrate they will benefit educationally from the CSB instructional program by showing:

(a) Applicant demonstrates that his or her primary educational needs are related to a severe sensory loss such that it affects the pupil's ability to access the general education or alternative curriculum.

(b) The ability to attend to non-visual stimuli.

(c) The ability to benefit from disability-specific instruction, as demonstrated by the following:

(1) potential to learn Braille, potential to use low vision aids;

(2) potential to benefit from expanded core curriculum instruction; and

(3) potential to benefit from adaptations to the environment.

(d) The ability to learn simple mobility patterns and routes around campus, as demonstrated by the following:

(1) The potential to use the white cane;

(2) The potential to orient self in space;

(3) The potential to learn own body and body parts; and

(4) The potential to learn concepts of directionality.

(e) Applicant demonstrates the ability to access the general education or alternative curriculum with reasonable accommodations without requiring a fundamental alteration of the educational program of CSB.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 59020, Education Code. Reference: Sections 56350 and 56352, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 8-13-2007; operative 8-13-2007 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2007, No. 33).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 17666, 5 CA ADC § 17666

§ 17667. Eligibility for Enrollment in CSB's Residential Program.

Applicants eligible for CSB's day program are not automatically enrolled into the residential program. Enrollment into CSB's residential program is a separate and distinct consideration even for a pupil currently enrolled in CSB's day program. An applicant who meets the criteria established by section 17666 may also be admitted into CSB's residential program, if CSB determines:

(a) The applicant resides beyond a 60-minute commute each way between home and CSB using transportation the LEA provides for day pupils.

(b) The applicant has the ability to respond independently and appropriately to life-threatening situations.

(c) The responsible local school district and parent/guardian have approved the applicant's placement in the residential program.

(d) The applicant does not have a history of un-rehabilitated behavior that poses a threat to themselves and/or others, including but not limited to substance abuse, fire-starting, sexually predatory behavior or assault.

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 59020, Education Code. Reference: Section 59020, Education Code.

HISTORY

1. New section filed 8-13-2007; operative 8-13-2007 pursuant to Government Code section 11343.4 (Register 2007, No. 33).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 17667, 5 CA ADC § 17667

California Code of Regulations, Title 5, Division 8, Chapter 1. Credentials Issued Under the Teacher Preparation and Licensing Law of 1970

Article 2. Credential Types, Authorizations, and Requirements

§ 80047.7. Credentials and Authorizations to Provide Instructional Services to Students with Primary Disability: Deaf-Blindness.

Holders of the listed credentials and authorizations are authorized to teach students with disabilities in which the primary disability is “deaf-blindness” as defined in subsection 300.8(c)(2) of Title 34 Code of Federal Regulations, Subpart A.

(a) Education Specialist Instruction Credential: Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing

(b) Education Specialist Instruction Credential: Visual Impairments

(c) Education Specialist Instruction Credential: Moderate/Severe Disabilities

(d) Special Education Specialist Instruction Credential for the Communication Handicapped

(e) Special Education Specialist Instruction Credential for the Visually Handicapped

(f) Special Education Specialist Instruction Credential for the Severely Handicapped

(g) Restricted Special Education-Deaf-Blind, and Severely Hard-of-Hearing

(h) Deaf-Blind Added Authorization in Special Education

(i) Holders of the Education Specialist Instruction Credential: Language and Academic Development are authorized to teach students who fall within the disability categories in this section with academic communication and language needs in the following areas: language development, school readiness and social skills, and literacy development addressing competencies across the curriculum in listening, speaking, reading, writing, and academic areas

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 44225, Education Code. Reference: Sections 44265, 44265.5 and 44343, Education Code; 34 C.F.R. 300.8(c)(2); and 20 USC 1401(3), (14), (15), (16), (29) and (30).

HISTORY

1. New section filed 12-22-86; designated effective 1-1-87 pursuant to Government Code Section 11346.2(d)(Register 86, No.52).

2. Amendment of section heading, section and NOTE filed 9-26-97; operative 10-26-97 (Register 97, No. 39).

3. Amendment of section heading, first paragraph and NOTE filed 5-27-2010; operative 6-26-2010 (Register 2010, No. 22).

4. Amendment of section heading and first paragraph and new subsections (h)-(i) filed 8-4-2011; operative 9-3-2011 (Register 2011, No. 31).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 80047.7, 5 CA ADC § 80047.7

§ 80047.8. Credentials to Provide Instructional Services to Students with Primary Disability: Visual Impairment Including Blindness.

Holders of the listed credentials are authorized to teach students with disabilities in which the primary disability is “visual impairment including blindness” as defined in subsection 300.8(c)(13) of Title 34 Code of Federal Regulations, Subpart A.

(a) Education Specialist Instruction Credential: Visual Impairments

(b) Special Education Specialist Instruction Credential for the Visually Handicapped

(c) Special Education Specialist Instruction Credential for the Physically Handicapped that was issued prior to January 1, 1981, on the basis of completing a Commission-approved program in which the focus was the Visually Handicapped

(d) Standard Teaching Credential With the Minor-Visually Handicapped

(e) Restricted Special Education Credential-Visually Handicapped

(f) Limited Specialized Preparation Credential-Visually Handicapped

(g) Special Secondary Credential-Partially Sighted Child

(h) Special Secondary Credential-Blind

(i) Exceptional Children Credential-Visually Handicapped

(j) Holders of the Education Specialist Instruction Credential: Language and Academic Development are authorized to teach students who fall within the disability categories in this section with academic communication and language needs in the following areas: language development, school readiness and social skills, and literacy development addressing competencies across the curriculum in listening, speaking, reading, writing, and academic areas

Credits

NOTE: Authority cited: Section 44225, Education Code. Reference: Sections 44265, 44265.5(a) and 44343, Education Code; 34 C.F.R. 300.8(c)(13); and 20 USC 1401(3), (14), (15), (16), (29) and (30).

HISTORY

1. New section filed 12-22-86; designated effective 1-1-87 pursuant to Government Code Section 11346.2(d)(Register 86, No.52).

2. Amendment of section heading, section and NOTE filed 9-26-97; operative 10-26-97 (Register 97, No. 39).

3. Amendment of section heading, first paragraph and NOTE filed 5-27-2010; operative 6-26-2010 (Register 2010, No. 22).

4. New subsection (i) filed 8-4-2011; operative 9-3-2011 (Register 2011, No. 31).

This database is current through 10/14/22 Register 2022, No. 41.

Cal. Admin. Code tit. 5, § 80047.8, 5 CA ADC § 80047.8

§ 80048.6. Authorizations for Education Specialist Instruction Credentials and Special Education Added Authorization.