2024年12月29日

mantis English Grammar

Components of English Language

1)Letters

• Lowercase: Small letters e.g., a, b, c).
• Uppercase: Capital letters (e.g., A, B, C).

2)Words

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/word-classes-and-phrase-classes#google_vignette

There are 9 word classes(Parts of Speech)

3)Phrases

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/word-classes-and-phrase-classes

①noun phrases

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/noun-phrases

②verb phrases

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/verb-phrases

③adjective phrase

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adjective-phrases

Adjective (head):

That’s a lovely cake.

These flowers are wonderful.

Adjective preceded by a modifier (underlined):

That soup is pretty cold.

Many of the exercises are fairly difficult.

Adjective + a modifier after it:

The food was tasty enough.

The car is economical for its size.

Adjective + a word or phrase which is required to complete its meaning (a complement):

She was aware of the danger of travelling alone.

Some people weren’t willing to pay extra to book a seat on the plane.

Adjective preceded by a modifier + a word or phrase which is required to complete its meaning (a complement):

We’re not very keen on having an activity holiday.

Are you really interested in rock and roll?

Some adjective phrases have more complex structures.

④adverb phrase

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/adverb-phrases

In the examples the adverb phrases are in bold. The other words that modify the adverb are underlined:

We usually go on holiday in August.

Time goes very quickly.

The day passed quickly enough.

This works really well for its size.

Luckily for us, the cost was not so high.

We kept the new money quite separately from what we’d already collected.

adverb phrases: types and meanings

An adverb phrase can consist of one adverb or an adverb plus other words before it (premodification) or after it (postmodification). Adverb phrases have many different meanings.In the examples the adverb phrases are in bold. The other words that modify the adverb are underlined.

⑤prepositional phrase

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/prepositional-phrases

Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition and the words which follow it (a complement). The complement (underlined below) is most commonly a noun phrase or pronoun, but it can also be, an adverb phrase (usually one of place or time), a verb in the -ing form or, less commonly, a prepositional phrase or a wh-clause:

They first met at a party. (preposition + noun phrase)

She was taken ill during the film. (preposition + noun phrase)

Would you like to come with me please? (preposition + pronoun)

From there, it’ll take you about half an hour to our house. (preposition + adverb)

Until quite recently, no one knew about his paintings. (preposition + adverb phrase)

She’s decided on doing a Chinese language course. (preposition + -ing clause)

Not: … decided on to do …

It’s a machine for making ice-cream. (preposition + -ing clause)

If you can wait until after my meeting with Jack, we can talk then. (preposition + prepositional phrase)

We were really surprised at what they wrote. (preposition + wh-clause)

We can put an adverb before a preposition to modify it. This applies mainly to prepositions of time or place which are gradable (above, before, far, deep, down, opposite):

They’ve moved far into the country.

They left the party just before us.

You can’t miss it. His office is almost opposite the coffee machine.

Prepositional phrases after verbs

Prepositional phrases can be complements of verbs.

If we need a special preposition to introduce the complement of the verb, we call such verbs ‘prepositional verbs’:

Do these keys belong to you?

We’re not happy but we do approve of their decision.

We sometimes use an adverb particle before the preposition.

The verb + adverb particle + preposition structure forms a verb which has a single meaning. We call such verbs ‘phrasal prepositional verbs’.

Their meaning is often not related to the meaning of the original verb:

She really looks up to her grandfather. (admires)

We’re all looking forward to having a few days’ holiday together. (anticipate with pleasure)

4)Clauses

①Main Clause (Independent Clause)

（出典）https://dictionary.cambridge.org/ja/grammar/british-grammar/clauses

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/clause-types

1.Declarative clauses (statements) Patterns

predicate=a part of a sentence containing a verb that makes a statement about the subject of the verb, such as went home in John went home.

 ②Subordinate Clause (Dependent Clause)

Subordinate (or dependent) clauses cannot form sentences on their own.

They are dependent on main clauses to form sentences.

They can be finite or non-finite.

 (the main clauses are in bold; the subordinate clauses are underlined):

You can call me if you have any problems.

I got up earlier than usual because I had to get the 6.30 train.

Although it hurt when she bent her wrist, she could still move her fingers.

5)Sentences

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/ja/grammar/british-grammar/sentences#google_vignette

There are three types of sentences: simple sentences, compound sentences, and complex sentences.

A compound sentence consists of a main clause and another main clause connected by a coordinating conjunction, while a complex sentence consists of a main clause and a subordinate clause connected by a subordinating conjunction.

6)Sentences and Conjunctions

①Compound Sentence and Coordinating Conjunctions

And, but, either … or, etc. (coordinating conjunctions)

Coordinating conjunctions connect items which are the same grammatical type, e.g. words, phrases, clauses.

The most common coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but.

One-word conjunctions

Connecting words

Which do you prefer?    Red or blue?

Connecting phrases

The meal was very expensive and not very nice.

Connecting clauses

There are seats outside but some people don’t like sitting outdoors.

Connecting sentences

My grandmother’s name was Wall.

But she became Jenkins when she got married to my grandfather. 

(In very formal writing, we don’t normally start a sentence with but.)

Connecting prefixes

Pro- and anti-government supporters waited outside the parliament.

Yet 

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/yet

Yet as a conjunction means ‘but’ or ‘nevertheless’. We use it to show contrast. It often occurs after and:

So many questions and yet so few answers.

It felt strange and yet so wonderful to ski in the summer!

https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Coordinating-Conjunctions.htm

Yet, like but, is used to present contrast. However, there is a subtle implication when we use yet that the information is surprising in light of what we already know. For example:

• “The movie was depressing yet uplifting at the same time.”
• “It’s poured rain all day, yet they haven’t canceled the football game.”
• “I’ve read hundreds of books since high school, yet The Catcher in the Rye is still my favorite.”

Nor

https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Coordinating-Conjunctions.htm

Nor is one of the most limited coordinating conjunctions. It’s used to present an additional negative idea when a negative idea has already been stated. For example:

• “He doesn’t like football, nor does he enjoy hockey.”
• “I’ve never seen that movie, nor do I want to see it.”
• She hasn’t been to Paris, nor has she travelled to Rome.”

Note that when nor is used to join two independent clauses, as in the examples above, negative inversion must be used in the second clause.

There is disagreement over whether nor should be used to join two elements that are not independent clauses. Therefore, the examples below would be considered correct according to some style guides and incorrect according to others:

• “I haven’t seen nor heard from Mike in days.”
• “He can’t play football nor basketball.”
• “She said she wasn’t going to sing nor dance at the party.”

For those who consider the above sentences to be incorrect, or would be the preferred coordinating conjunction, as in:

• “I haven’t seen or heard from Mike in days.”
• “He can’t play football or basketball.”
• “She said she wasn’t going to sing or dance at the party.”

So

https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Coordinating-Conjunctions.htm

So is generally only used to join two independent clauses, where the second clause is a result of the first. For example:

• “He was exhausted, so he went to bed early.”

• “She was the most qualified candidate, so we gave her the job.”

• “He’s been working harder lately, so his grades are improving.”

Two-word conjunctions

Some coordinating conjunctions have two parts: either … or …, neither … nor …, both … and …:

You can drink chocolate milk either hot in the winter or cold in the summer.

Neither Lisa nor Helena had been to Italy before. (Lisa hadn’t been to Italy before and Helena hadn’t been to Italy before.)

Both you and I know what really happened. (You know and I know what happened.)

②Complex Sentence and Subordinating Conjunctions

1)Subordinating Conjunctionのbecause,since ,as ,now thatは Reasonを表すSubordinate Clauseを作る

＊come over→to travel from one place to another, usually over a long distance

now (that)→because the thing mentioned is happening or has just happened

＊In informal speaking we can leave out that: 

now thatの文例

https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/now-that

We don't see much of Elliot now that he's in London.

She's enjoying the job now that she's got more responsibility.

Now I have my car, I don't get as much exercise as I used to.

Now that we both have full-time jobs, I think we can afford one or two luxuries.

Of course, now that she's eighteen, she can make these decisions for herself.

（注意 2）Reason Clauseが文頭に来た場合は後に(,)をつける

2)Subordinating Conjunctionのso、so that、so as、in order thatはPurposeを表すSubordinate Clauseを作る

We use the following conjunctions to talk about purposes 

So and so that are more common than so as and in order that.

So as is rather informal. In order that is more formal than the others.

3)Other Subordinating Conjunctions