SSUSH23 – Assess the political, economic, and technological changes during the Reagan, Bush, Sr., Clinton, Bush, and Obama administrations.

The presidencies of Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Clinton, George W. Bush, and Obama included some important events and issues related to political, economic, and technological change. The Cold War came to an end only to be followed soon thereafter with fighting in the Middle East. The economy of the United States experienced significant growth and foreign trade was the focus of new policy in the 1990s. Personal computing and communication technology emerged as areas of extreme growth in the new millennium. Following the contested election of 2000, the nation was gripped by the tragedy of the 9/11 attacks. The War on Terror has been an ongoing result of the international effort to end terrorist activities in their networks. Each President experienced success and challenge during his time in office.

a. Analyze challenges by recent presidents including the collapse of the Soviet Union, Clinton’s impeachment, the attacks of September 11, 2001, and the war against terrorism.

The modern Presidencies of Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Clinton, George W. Bush, and Obama all dealt with challenges. Some challenges were more significant than others. The Reagan years in the White House began with the continuation of the Cold War division of international power and influence between the United States and the Soviet Union. The nuclear weapon capability of both sides was massive. Over the course of Reagan's two terms in office, the Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union. The events leading up to the collapse were rapid and surprising.

The Soviet Union built up its military arsenal in the late 1970s and early 1980s but the United States still maintained a qualitative edge. President Reagan began modernizing U.S. forces and contemplating a new anti-ballistic missile shield called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which was sometimes referred to as "Star Wars." The Soviets could not respond to this modernization because the cost was beyond their resources. The Soviet Union's economy was in great decline after years of failure in agricultural and industrial production. Reagan put further pressure on his Cold War rivals by persuading the Saudi Arabians to lower the price of crude oil, thereby undercutting the Soviet Union's chief source of revenue - oil exports. The Soviet President, Mikhail Gorbachev, decided to begin a policy of Perestroika (economic rebuilding) and Glasnost (political reform).

President Gorbachev set up policies allowing free speech, free press, and other reforms. The changes put the Soviet Union on a path to democratic government. President Reagan played on these changes and began open dialogue with Gorbachev. The more cooperative relationship between the Cold War rivals resulted in a nuclear arms agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union. Gorbachev's reforms led to a collapse of the Soviet Union through a reduction in the Kremlin's control over the various states that comprised the Soviet Union. The Eastern European

nations, which had been satellite states of the Soviet Union since the close of World War II, also rebelled against their oppressor and established their own democratic states. By 1989, the Cold War was over. The effort of President Reagan to foster the relationship with Gorbachev helped to end the

Cold War and was a highlight of his presidency.

After Ronald Reagan served two terms as President, his Vice President George H.W. Bush was elected in 1988. He served one term, which included a costly economic downturn and the military victory alongside the United Nations in the 1991 Gulf War against Saddam Hussein in Iraq who had invaded its much smaller neighbor Kuwait. His campaign promise of “No New Taxes” was broken when he agreed to let the Democrat-controlled Congress raise taxes to help pay national debts (borrowed money). This broken promise & rising unemployment lost President George H.W. Bush his reelection bid to the Democratic Candidate, Bill Clinton, in 1992.

Like George H.W. Bush, Clinton's presidency had successes and challenges. One highlight was the end of the national budget deficit (not enough money in the budget), which resulted in a budget surplus (more than enough money in the budget), by the Republican-controlled Congress led by Speaker Newt Gingrich. This economic success was achieved through tax cuts and reduced government spending. However, Clinton's presidency was challenged by a scandal that led to his impeachment.

Bill Clinton became the second president in United States history to be impeached. The House of Representatives charged him with perjury (lying under oath) and obstruction of justice (choosing to interfere with an investigation). The impeachment charges were based on accusations of improper use of money from a real estate deal and allegations that Clinton lied under oath about the improper relationship he had with a White House intern. Clinton denied the charges and the Senate acquitted (found not guilty) him, allowing the President to remain in office and finish his second term. Clinton's second term ended with the 2000 election of the Republican candidate George W. Bush, a son of earlier President George H.W. Bush.

George W. Bush entered the White House after a tumultuous 2000 Presidential Election that ended with legal challenges of the result. The Democratic Candidate was Clinton's Vice President, Al Gore. Although Bush won the Electoral College vote, Gore won the popular vote in the election. The media centered on Florida's election results. The margin of victory in Florida was so close that a mandatory recount occurred. Gore requested a hand count of questionable ballots. All of these processes ran afoul of Florida election law and resulted in lawsuits filed in both state and federal courts over the appropriateness of vote recounts. Ultimately, the Supreme Court ruled that a statewide vote recount would be unconstitutional and Bush was declared the winner in Florida. The nation was greatly divided moving forward to the 2001 inauguration of George W. Bush.

The political division caused by the controversial election quickly came to an end with the national tragedy experienced on September 11, 2001. On that fateful day, an Islamist terrorist group launched a series of attacks on the United States using airplanes as weapons. The World Trade Center Twin Towers in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington D.C. were hit and another airliner crashed after passengers and crew members forced the terrorists to crash prior to reaching an unspecified Washington D.C. target.

In response, and with overwhelming support of both Congress and the American people, Bush quickly signed the Patriot Act. The law allowed the United States government to hold foreign citizens suspected of being terrorists for up to seven days without charging them with a crime. The law also increased the ability of American law enforcement agencies to search private communications and personal records to prevent future terrorist attacks. The Patriot Act later came under scrutiny as questions of privacy emerged. Bush's administration also created the Department of Homeland Security in the wake of the terrorist attack and tasked the agency with protecting the United States from terrorist attacks and responding to natural disasters. Most of these responses to the 9/11 attack were supported by Americans at the time.

In October 2001, Bush took another step in his response to the September 11th attack. He authorized Operation Enduring Freedom, which was an invasion of Afghanistan by the United States military and allied forces. Afghanistan's Taliban government was harboring the al-Qaeda leadership. The allied forces quickly defeated the Taliban government and destroyed the al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan; however, al-Qaeda's leader Osama bin Laden escaped. American intelligence & military agencies continued to hunt him.

The invasion of Afghanistan was part of President Bush's larger War on Terrorism, for which he built an international coalition to fight the al-Qaeda network and other terrorist groups responsible for the attack on the United States. In March 2003, American and British troops invaded Iraq in Operation Iraqi Freedom. Iraq's president, Saddam Hussein, went into hiding while U.S. forces searched for weapons of mass destruction. Bush feared Hussein had the weapons and could supply them to terrorists for use against the United States. No weapons of mass destruction were found during the operation. However, Hussein was captured, convicted of crimes against humanity, and executed in 2006. Bush's presidency was challenging from the beginning. He had the support of most Americans immediately following the September 11, 2001 attacks but lost some support when no weapons of mass destruction were found in Iraq.

b. Examine economic policies of recent presidents including Reaganomics.

The economy of the United States has experienced highs and lows during recent presidential administrations. The U.S. government instituted plans to address the 1970s stagnant economy.The economy grew during the 1980s but the growth came with large federal budget deficits. The later economic challenges that occurred during the late 1980’s & early 1990’s affected efforts to take on the budget deficit through tax cuts and reduced federal spending during the rest of the 1990s. During the War on Terror, the U.S. government increased spending in the wake of the September 11th attacks. An economic recession occurred in the early 2000s. The economic policy included a stimulus package to increase jobs and economic growth. Overall, the modern Presidents experienced significant economic growth and decline. Each approached economic policy differently.

In 1980, Ronald Reagan was elected President by campaigning against what was cast as a weak and ineffective Carter presidency. Reagan pledged to restore the United States' economy and prestige at home and abroad. One basic principle of his domestic policy was the belief in supply-side economics, often referred to as Reaganomics. President Reagan held that if Americans had more money to spend, then the economy would improve. There were four key components to Reaganomics.

1. Reduce government spending

2. Reduce income tax and capital gains (profit from a sale/investment) tax

3. Reduce government regulation (rules)

4. Control the money supply to reduce inflation (decrease in the value of money)

In general, the United States experienced a sustained period of economic growth during the 1980’s. However, federal deficits also increased dramatically, which led to economic problems in the 1990s.

c. Examine the influence of technological changes on society including the personal computer, the Internet, and social media.

Technology in the late Twentieth Century dramatically changed society. The efficiency of new technological innovations led to greater productivity in business, industrial, and personal sectors. Communication was revolutionized as new platforms took hold at the start of the new millennium.

Scholars at the University of Pennsylvania designed the first computer in 1946. Their device was known as ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). While it was the first step into the new technological age, it was not practical for widespread consumer use. ENIAC was enormous and had a limited capacity for output. The next step was to reduce the size of the computer's hardware in order to make the technology viable for business and eventually personal use. That development came about in 1971 with the invention of the microprocessor. The power of ENIAC was thus harnessed and contained in a silicon chip the size of a postage stamp. The capability of computers was growing very quickly with computation and word processing functions. Technology innovators were also improving the speed at which computers were able to process data.

As computer technology improved, a vast new world of instant, global communication arose. During the 1980s and 1990s, Internet was developed as a conglomeration of computer networks from around the world. Personal computers became popular as the Internet became more accessible to individuals. No longer was computer technology used solely in business and manufacturing settings. Home computers became more affordable and practical in their capability for individual use.

A new platform for communication emerged from the development of the Internet. The term Email is short for electronic mail. In the mid-1990s, the use of Email started to become a popular mode for sending messages instantly over the Internet. No longer did commercial companies or individuals have to wait for written documents, messages, or information to be physically transported. Instead, Email is an immediate method of information transfer. Email changed the way business communication is conducted and the way individuals often communicate.

Social Media is another recent technological phenomenon in which individuals share information in online communities. Popular social media platforms include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat. Individuals create accounts and share or post messages, photos, and videos to the online community they create. The popularity of social media has dramatically increased in the first few decades of the Twenty-first Century. Social media is becoming a source for news and instant information sharing. While popular, there are growing concerns about the credibility and reliability of some information disseminated through social media. Cyber bullying is another problem that has resulted from the advent of social media.

Technological changes in the Twenty-first Century have been dramatic. Businesses and individuals rely heavily on computers, the Internet, and social media for communication and productivity. While innovation has 1 increased global connectivity and 2 efficiency, there have been some negative consequences that came along with the new technology. 1 Privacy, 2 trustworthiness of information being presented, and 3 cyber security risks are all challenges that must be addressed as technology continues to evolve.

d. Examine the historic nature of the presidential election of 2008.

The candidates in the Presidential Election of 2008 campaigned on the issues of the lagging economy and the war to fight terrorism. Trillions of dollars had been spent on the war in Iraq, the economy was weakening, and unemployment was on the rise. It was a politically charged campaign that led to the historic outcome of the election in which the first person of color was elected to be President of the United States.

Many Americans and journalists thought Hillary Clinton would be the Democratic nominee for the 2008 Presidential Election. Instead the Democratic Party nominated Barack Obama. His platform of "Hope and Change," delivered with skilled oratory (speaking), captured the attention of his party and many Americans. Obama was relatively new to national politics having only served one term as a Senator from Illinois. Barack Obama was a 47 year old, Harvard educated lawyer when he was elected President. He was the biracial son of a White woman from Kansas and a Black man from Kenya.

Obama's Republican opponent in the 2008 Presidential Election was Senator John McCain of Arizona. In contrast to Obama's youth and lack of national political experience, McCain was a veteran on both counts. He was 72 years old during the campaign in 2008, had served in the United States Congress for 25 years, and was a Vietnam War veteran who was shot down and captured as a Prisoner of War. The campaign between McCain and Obama was hard fought. Ultimately, Obama won with an Electoral College victory of 365-173.

Barack Obama was reelected in 2012 over the Republican nominee, Mitt Romney. Obama served two terms as President. Some of the major outcomes of his presidency were the controversial passage of Healthcare Reform (Obamacare) in 2010. His foreign policy effort was highlighted by the elimination of Osama bin Laden, who was America's prime target in the War on Terror after the September 11th attack. A Navy SEAL team killed bin Laden on May 11, 2011. Throughout Obama's historic presidency there was a growing conservative movement that opposed the efforts of the President and the Democratic Party. The result was a deep political divide in the United States that pitted Democrats and Republicans in bitter state and national elections.