Pieces on Non-‘Western’ Philosophy for a General Audience: A List
Welcome! This is an open list of resources for the general public on non-‘Western’ traditions of philosophy. I hope to expand and keep it updated over time, so please do send good pieces my way (acp458@nyu.ed) - especially regarding traditions underrepresented here!
As you can see, I’ve done it as a bibliography. I’ve more-or-less used the guidelines from the Chicago Manual of Style, guidelines here and here.
A note on selections. Some of the pieces are a little more or a little less for non-academic audiences, and some straddle the line with intellectual history. I’ve used a broad brush and left in pieces I think would be useful for anyone from general readers to students of philosophy (like myself!) who are interested in these traditions.
A note on the categories. The categories aren’t supposed to imply internal homogeneity (e.g. Aztec philosophy is different in many ways from North American indigenous philosophies), or exclusivity (e.g. Buddhism cuts across South Asia and China), or exhaustiveness (e.g. I was unable to find any good non-specialist pieces on either Aboriginal Australian or Māori philosophy, though I know academic philosophers have done work on them). These categories are just a rough geographical way to sort things initially until/unless someone suggests a more useful way. At some point I’ll have a go at making a sortable table for all of these that people can modify as they like.
Metaphilosophy
Garfield, Jay L. and Bryan W. Van Norden. ‘If Philosophy Won’t Diversify, Let’s Call It What It Really Is’. The New York Times, 11 May, 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/11/opinion/if-philosophy-wont-diversify-lets-call-it-what-it-really-is.html
Krishnamurthy, Meena. ‘Decolonizing Analytic Political Philosophy’. Philosopher, 3 June, 2016. https://politicalphilosopher.net/2016/06/03/meenakrishnamurthy/
Levine, Peter. ‘The lack of diversity in philosophy is blocking its progress’. Aeon, 28 June, 2016. https://aeon.co/ideas/the-lack-of-diversity-in-philosophy-is-blocking-its-progress
McLeod, Alexus. ‘Comparative Philosophy in an Age of Cultural Chauvinism (or “The Art of Traveling Without Traveling”)’. Philosopher, 23 February, 2017. https://politicalphilosopher.net/2017/02/23/featured-philosopher-alexus-mcleod/
Salami, Minna. ‘Philosophy has to be about more than white men’. The Guardian, 23 March, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/education/commentisfree/2015/mar/23/philosophy-white-men-university-courses
Smith, Justin E. H. ‘What is “Non-Western” Philosophy?’ 3 Quarks Daily, 7 December, 2009. http://www.3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2009/12/is-philosophy-western-part-i.html
Smith, Justin E. H. ‘Philosophy’s Western Bias’. The New York Times, 3 June, 2012. https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/philosophys-western-bias/
Strickland, Lloyd. ‘How Western Philosophy Became Racist’. iai News, The Institute of Art and Ideas, 10 January, 2019. https://iai.tv/articles/the-racism-of-the-western-philosophy-canon-auid-1200
Van Norden, Bryan W. ‘Western philosophy is racist’. Aeon, 31 October, 2017. https://aeon.co/essays/why-the-western-philosophical-canon-is-xenophobic-and-racist
Vargas, Manuel R. ‘If Anglo-American philosophy is so great, where is its Las Casas?’ Philosopher, 12 May, 2017. https://politicalphilosopher.net/2017/05/12/featured-philosopher-manuel-vargas/
General Comparative
Baggini, Julian. ‘About time: why western philosophy can only teach us so much’. The Guardian, 25 September, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/sep/25/about-time-why-western-philosophy-can-only-teach-us-so-much
Herbjørnsrud, Dag. ‘First women of philosophy’. Aeon, 23 November, 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/before-the-canon-the-non-european-women-who-founded-philosophy
Parham, Karen. ‘Meditating with Descartes’. Philosophy Now, 132, June 2019. https://philosophynow.org/issues/132/Meditating_with_Descartes
Van der Velden, Miguel. ‘Indigenous Philosophies’. Philosophy Now, 127, August 2018. http://philosophynow.org/issues/127/Indigenous_Philosophies
[For some interesting comparisons of contemporary academic philosophy as practiced in various parts of the world, check out this series at The Philosophers’ Cocoon.]
Africa
Agada, Ada. ‘A truly African philosophy’. Aeon, 27 September, 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/consolation-philosophy-and-the-struggle-of-reason-in-africa
Eze, Emmanuel. ‘African Philosophy’. Interview by Rick Lewis. Philosophy Now, Spring 1999. https://philosophynow.org/issues/23/African_Philosophy
Birhane, Abeba. ‘Descartes was wrong: “a person is a person through other persons”’. Aeon, 7 April, 2017. https://aeon.co/amp/ideas/descartes-was-wrong-a-person-is-a-person-through-other-persons
Flegel, Peter. ‘Does Western Philosophy Have Egyptian Roots?’ Philosophy Now, 128, October 2018. http://philosophynow.org/issues/128/Does_Western_Philosophy_Have_Egyptian_Roots
Flikschuh, Katrin. ‘What You Should Know About Contemporary African Philosophy’. iai News, The Institute of Art and Ideas, 12 March, 2018. https://iainews.iai.tv/articles/what-you-should-know-about-contemporary-african-philosophy-auid-1047
Graness, Anke. ‘Philosophy in Africa - A Case of Epistemic Injustice in the Academy’. Philosopher, 6 March, 2016. https://politicalphilosopher.net/2016/03/06/featured-philosop-her-anke-graness/
Herbjørnsrud, Dag. ‘The African Enlightenment’. Aeon, 13 December, 2017. https://aeon.co/essays/yacob-and-amo-africas-precursors-to-locke-hume-and-kant
Herbjørnsrud, Dag. ‘The Radical Philosophy of Egypt’. Blog of the APA, The American Philosophical Association, 17 December, 2018. https://blog.apaonline.org/2018/12/17/the-radical-philosophy-of-egypt-forget-god-and-family-write/
Hoffmeier, James K. ‘The first God’. Aeon, 12 February, 2019. https://aeon.co/essays/why-did-an-ancient-egyptian-king-erase-all-gods-but-aten
Ochieng, Omedi. ‘African Philosophy Is More Than You Think It Is’. iai News, The Institute of Art and Ideas, 20 June, 2018. https://iainews.iai.tv/articles/african-philosophy-is-more-than-you-think-it-is-auid-1097
Ochieng, Omedi. ‘What African Philosophy Can Teach You About the Good Life’. iai News, 68, 10 September, 2018. https://iainews.iai.tv/articles/what-african-philosophy-can-teach-you-about-the-good-life-auid-1147
[Anyone interested in Africana philosophy should also check out this ongoing series in Professor Peter Adamson’s podcast (this section co-authored with Professor Chike Jeffers). Minna Salami’s blog, MsAfropolitan, also contains a number of reflections on philosophy and feminism in Africa (amongst other topics!). Finally, Omedi Ochieng has put together a really useful a syllabus of Feminist African Philosophy, which is very much worth checking out.]
Americas
Herbjørnsrud, Dag. ‘The Mesoamerican Philosophy Renaissance’. Blog of the APA, The American Philosophical Association, 10 January, 2020. https://blog.apaonline.org/2020/01/09/the-mesoamerican-philosophy-renaissance/
HolyWhiteMountain, Sterling. ‘Sterling HolyWhiteMountain on Blood Quantum, “Native Art”, and Cultural Appropriation’. Interview by Matt Strohl. Aesthetics for Birds, 31 January, 2019. https://aestheticsforbirds.com/2019/01/31/sterling-holywhitemountain-on-blood-quantum-native-art-and-cultural-appropriation/
Jackson, Sarah. ‘A rock, a human, a tree: all were persons to the Classic Maya’. Aeon, 22 April, 2019. https://aeon.co/ideas/a-rock-a-human-a-tree-all-were-persons-to-the-classic-maya
Purcell, Sebastian. ‘What the Aztecs can teach us about happiness and the good life’. Aeon, 11 November, 2016. https://aeon.co/ideas/what-the-aztecs-can-teach-us-about-happiness-and-the-good-life
Purcell, Sebastian. ‘Life on the slippery Earth’. Aeon, 3 July, 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/aztec-moral-philosophy-didnt-expect-anyone-to-be-a-saint
Uranga, Emilio. ‘The Philosophy of Mexicanness’. Translated by Carlos Alberto Sanchez. Aeon, 25 June, 2018. https://aeon.co/classics/to-be-accidental-is-to-be-human-on-the-philosophy-of-mexicanness
Whyte, Kyle. ‘Conveners of Responsibilities’. Center for Humans & Nature. https://www.humansandnature.org/earth-ethic-kyle-powys-whyte
Whyte, Kyle. ‘Indigenous Research and Professional Philosophy in the U.S.’ Philosopher, 3 February, 2017. https://politicalphilosopher.net/2017/02/03/featured-philosopher-kyle-whyte/
[If you’re interested in Indigenous philosophies, you might be interested in having a look through the APA’s Newsletter on Native American and Indigenous Philosophers. If you’re interested in Indigenous philosophies as they relate to the environment and climate change, Professor Kyle Whyte has an extensive two-part bibliography of materials, which you should definitely check out!]
China & East Asia
Adamson, Peter. ‘Can Confucians Have Friends?’ Philosophy Now, 126, June, 2018. https://philosophynow.org/issues/126/Can_Confucians_Have_Friends
Altman, John, and Bryan van Norden. 'Was This Ancient Taoist the First Philosopher of Disability?' The New York Times, 8 July, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/08/opinion/disability-philosophy-zhuangzi.html
Arnold, Dan, and Alicia Turner. ‘Why Are We Surprised When Buddhists Are Violent?’ The New York Times, 5 March, 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/05/opinion/buddhists-violence-tolerance.html
Asma, Stephen T. ‘The Enigma of Chinese Medicine’. The New York Times, 28 September, 2013. https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/09/28/the-enigma-of-chinese-medicine/
Asma, Stephen T. ‘From China, With Pragmatism’. The New York Times, 8 June, 2014. https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/06/08/from-china-with-pragmatism/
Asma, Stephen T. ‘Was Bo Diddley a Buddha?’ The New York Times, 10 April, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/10/opinion/was-bo-diddley-a-buddha.html
Baggini, Julian. ‘What Is the Self? It Depends’. The New York Times, 8 February, 2016. https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2016/02/08/the-self-in-east-and-west/
Baum, Emily. ‘Collective psychiatry’. Aeon, 17 December, 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/why-china-held-on-to-the-political-ideal-of-mental-hygiene
Buckingham, Will. ‘The uncertainty machine’. Aeon, 11 October, 2013. https://aeon.co/essays/forget-prophecy-the-i-ching-is-an-uncertainty-machine
Buckley, Chris. ‘Leader Taps Into Chinese Classics in Seeking to Cement Power’. The New York Times, 11 October, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/12/world/leader-taps-into-chinese-classics-in-seeking-to-cement-power.html
Crane, Sam. ‘What Confucius Teaches Us About Modern American Justice’. The Atlantic, 10 December, 2013. https://www.theatlantic.com/china/archive/2013/12/what-confucius-teaches-us-about-modern-american-justice/282220/
Curzer, Howard J. ‘Ancient Eastern Advice for Modern Western Problems’. Review of The Path by Michael Puett and Christine Gross-Loh. Los Angeles Review of Books, 26 July, 2017. https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/ancient-eastern-advice-for-modern-western-problems
Han, Byung-Chul. ‘The copy is the original’. Aeon, 8 March, 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/why-in-china-and-japan-a-copy-is-just-as-good-as-an-original
Herbjørnsrud, Dag. ‘Global History of Ideas: A Sea for Fish on Dry Land’. JHIBlog, Journal of the History of Ideas, 15 February, 2017. https://jhiblog.org/2017/02/15/global-history-of-ideas-a-sea-for-fish-on-dry-land/
Imamkhodjaeva, Oidinposha. ‘Non-Violent Voices’. Philosophy Now, 124, March 2018. https://philosophynow.org/issues/124/Non-Violent_Voices
Lai, Karyn. ‘So You Want to Teach Some Chinese Philosophy?’ Blog of the APA, The American Philosophical Association, 22 October, 2018. https://blog.apaonline.org/2018/10/22/so-you-want-to-teach-some-chinese-philosophy/
McDougall, Edward. ‘On Being Useless: A Daoist Reflection’. iai News, The Institute of Arts and Ideas, 27 Februrary, 2019. https://iai.tv/articles/uselessness-as-life-affirmation-a-daoist-reflection-auid-1217
Olberding, Amy. ‘The Moral Gravity of Mere Trifles’. theForum, LSE, 29 May, 2017. http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/theforum/meretrifles/
Olberding, Amy. ‘Is the death of an elder worse than the death of a young person?’ Aeon, 20 November, 2017. https://aeon.co/ideas/the-death-of-our-elders-not-the-young-is-the-worse-loss
Ramsey, John. ‘Mengzi’s Moral Psychology, Part 1: The Four Moral Sprouts’. 1000-Word Philosophy, 10 April, 2018. https://1000wordphilosophy.com/2018/04/10/mengzis-moral-psychology-part-1-the-four-moral-sprouts/
Ramsey, John. ‘Mengzi’s Moral Psychology, Part 2: The Cultivation Analogy’. 1000-Word Philosophy, 10 April, 2018. https://1000wordphilosophy.com/2018/04/10/mengzis-moral-psychology-part-2-the-cultivation-analogy/
Schneider, Henrique. ‘How To Establish Social Order? Three Early Chinese Answers’. 1000-Word Philosophy, 9 July, 2018. https://1000wordphilosophy.com/2018/07/09/how-to-establish-social-order-three-early-chinese-answers/
Schwitzgebel, Eric. ‘How Mengzi came up with something better than the Golden Rule’. Aeon, 1 November 2019. https://aeon.co/ideas/how-mengzi-came-up-with-something-better-than-the-golden-rule
Tu, Wei-Ming. ‘Interview with Tu Wei-Ming’. Interview by Anja Steinbauer. Philosophy Now, 23, Spring 1999. https://philosophynow.org/issues/23/Interview_with_Tu_Wei-ming
Tu, Wei-Ming. ‘Tu Wei-Ming’. Interview by David Volodzko. Philosophy Now, 117, January, 2017. https://philosophynow.org/issues/117/Tu_Weiming
Van Norden, Bryan W. ‘Confucius on Gay Marriage’. The Diplomat, 13 July, 2015. https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/confucius-on-gay-marriage/
Van Norden, Bryan W. ‘The second sage’. Aeon, 31 October, 2016. https://aeon.co/essays/the-influential-confucian-philosopher-you-ve-never-heard-of
Victoria, Brian. ‘Breath of life’. Aeon, 20 December, 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/shinto-shows-the-debt-to-animism-of-organised-religions-today
Victoria, Brian. ‘Zen terror’. 10 July, 2019. https://aeon.co/essays/the-lessons-of-nissho-inoue-and-his-cell-of-zen-terrorists
Wong, David. ‘Crossing Cultures in Moral Psychology’. Philosophy Now, 36, July 2002. https://philosophynow.org/issues/36/Crossing_Cultures_in_Moral_Psychology
Zhuang Zi. ‘Chapter One: Wandering Far and Unfettered’. Translated by Brook Ziporyn. Aeon, 5 November, 2018. https://aeon.co/classics/on-the-path-to-improvement-follow-the-jester-not-the-sage
Islamic World
Adamson, Peter. ‘What can Avicenna teach us about the mind-body problem?’ Aeon, 9 September, 2016. https://aeon.co/ideas/what-can-avicenna-teach-us-about-the-mind-body-problem
Adamson, Peter. ‘Arabic translators did far more than just preserve Greek philosophy’. Aeon, 4 November, 2016. https://aeon.co/ideas/arabic-translators-did-far-more-than-just-preserve-greek-philosophy
Adamson, Peter. ‘If Aquinas is a philosopher then so are the Islamic theologians’. Aeon, 10 February, 2017. https://aeon.co/ideas/if-aquinas-is-a-philosopher-then-so-are-the-islamic-theologians
Adamson, Peter. ‘When philosophy needed Muslims, Jews and Christians alike’. Aeon, 21 April, 2017. https://aeon.co/ideas/when-philosophy-needed-muslims-jews-and-christians-alike
Adamson, Peter. ‘So You Want to Teach Some Islamic Philosophy?’ Blog of the APA, The American Philosophical Association, 3 September, 2018. https://blog.apaonline.org/2018/09/03/so-you-want-to-teach-some-islamic-philosophy/
Adamson, Peter. ‘What Is Arabic Philosophy?’ iai News, The Institute of Arts and Ideas, 25 March, 2019. https://iai.tv/articles/what-is-arabic-philosophy-auid-1219
Adamson, Peter. ‘Music in Islamic Philosophy’. Fusion Magazine, 14 November, 2019. https://www.fusionmagazine.org/music-in-islamic-philosophy/
Al-Jubouri, Imadaldin. ‘Human Acts in Islamic Philosophy’. Philosophy Now, 47, August, 2004. https://philosophynow.org/issues/47/Human_Acts_in_Islamic_Philosophy
Al-Jubouri, Imadaldin. ‘Ibn Khaldun and the Philosophy of History’. Philosophy Now, 50, March, 2005. https://philosophynow.org/issues/50/Ibn_Khaldun_and_the_Philosophy_of_History
Al-Jubouri, Imadaldin. ‘Islamic Rationalism’. Philosophy Now, 60, March, 2007. https://philosophynow.org/issues/60/Islamic_Rationalism
Dabashi, Hamid. ‘Found in Translation’. The New York Times, 28 July, 2013. https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/28/found-in-translation/
Elshakry, Marwa. ‘Ibn Tufayl and the story of the feral child of philosophy’. Aeon, 26 March, 2019. https://aeon.co/ideas/ibn-tufayl-and-the-story-of-the-feral-child-of-philosophy
Fraenkel, Carlos. ‘Deprovincializing Philosophy’. Review of Philosophy in the Islamic World by Peter Adamson. Los Angeles Review of Books, 29 July, 2017. https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/deprovincializing-philosophy/
Lall, Rashmee Roshan. ‘How Al-Farabi drew on Plato to argue for censorship in Islam’. Aeon, 12 November, 2018. https://aeon.co/ideas/how-al-farabi-drew-on-plato-to-argue-for-censorship-in-islam
Tolan, John. ‘Muhammad: an anticlerical hero of the European Enlightenment’. Aeon, 1 April, 2019. https://aeon.co/ideas/muhammad-an-anticlerical-hero-of-the-european-enlightenment
[Anyone interested in the history of philosophy in the Islamic World should head to this section of Professor Adamson’s podcast!]
South Asia
Adamson, Peter. ‘Meat is Murder’. Philosophy Now, 113, May, 2016. https://philosophynow.org/issues/113/Meat_is_Murder
Abbs, Peter. 'Buddha Travels West'. Philosophy Now, 138, June/July, 2020. https://philosophynow.org/issues/138/Buddha_Travels_West
Barrett, Lisa Feldman, and John Dunne. ‘Buddhists in love’. Aeon, 4 June, 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/does-buddhist-detachment-allow-for-a-healthier-togetherness
Chabal, Emile. ‘The voice of Hobsbawm’. Aeon, 8 October, 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/how-eric-hobsbawm-helped-shape-the-global-marxist-imagination
Das, Akhandadhi. ‘Modern technology is akin to the metaphysics of Vedanta’. Aeon, 2 January, 2019. https://aeon.co/ideas/modern-technology-is-akin-to-the-metaphysics-of-vedanta
Flood, Gavin. ‘The Secrets of the Tantric Body’. iai News, The Institute of Arts and Ideas, 8 July, 2018. https://iainews.iai.tv/articles/the-story-of-the-tantric-body-auid-1106
Ganeri, Jonardon. ‘What Would Krishna Do? Or Shiva? Or Vishnu?’ Interview by Gary Gutting. The New York Times, 3 August, 2014. https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/08/03/what-would-krishna-do-or-shiva-or-vishnu/
Ganeri, Jonardon. ‘The tree of knowledge is not an apple or an oak but a banyan’. Aeon, 23 June, 2017. https://aeon.co/ideas/the-tree-of-knowledge-is-not-an-apple-or-an-oak-but-a-banyan
Ganeri, Jonardon. ‘So You Want to Teach Some Indian Philosophy?’ Blog of the APA, The American Philosophical Association, 8 October, 2018. https://blog.apaonline.org/2018/10/08/so-you-want-to-teach-some-indian-philosophy/
Garfield, Jay L. ‘What Does Buddhism Require?’ Interview by Gary Gutting. The New York Times, 27 April, 2014. https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/27/what-does-buddhism-require
Garfield, Jay L. ‘Why There Is No Self: A Buddhist Perspective for the West’. iai News, The Institute of Arts and Ideas, 21 February, 2018. https://iainews.iai.tv/articles/why-there-is-no-self-a-buddhist-perspective-for-the-west-auid-1044
Gopnik, Alison. ‘How an 18th-Century Philosopher Helped Me Solve My Midlife Crisis’. The Atlantic, October 2015. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/10/how-david-hume-helped-me-solve-my-midlife-crisis/403195/
Herbjørnsrud, Dag. 'The untold history of India's vital atheist philosophy'. Blog of the APA, The American Philosophy Association, 16 June, 2020. https://blog.apaonline.org/2020/06/16/the-untold-history-of-indias-vital-atheist-philosophy/
Iyer, Bharatwaj. ‘Some Solid Ideas’. Philosophy Now, 132, June 2019. https://philosophynow.org/issues/132/Some_Solid_Ideas
Javanaud, Katie. ‘Buddhism and self-deception’. Aeon, 24 January, 2019. https://aeon.co/essays/how-buddhism-resolves-the-paradox-of-self-deception
Jones, Nicholaos. ‘Dharma in Abhidharma Buddhism’. 1000-Word Philosophy, 1 June, 2018. https://1000wordphilosophy.com/2018/06/01/dharma-in-abhidharma-buddhism/
Kachru, Sonam. 'Ashoka's moral empire'. Aeon, 2 July, 2020. https://aeon.co/essays/ashokas-ethical-infrastructure-is-carved-into-indias-rocks
Krishnamurthy, Meena. ‘Mainstreaming Indian Political Philosophy’. Philosopher, 16 April, 2017. https://politicalphilosopher.net/2017/04/16/featured-philosopher-meena-krishnamurthy-3/
Kreutz, Adrian. ‘Marxism and Buddhism’. Aeon, 17 July, 2019. https://aeon.co/essays/how-marxism-and-buddhism-complement-each-other
Lopez, Donald S. ‘The Buddhist monk who became an apostle for sexual freedom’. Aeon, 3 September, 2018. https://aeon.co/ideas/the-buddhist-monk-who-became-an-apostle-for-sexual-freedom
Macaro, Antonia. ‘Is meditating on death like putting on a fur coat in summer?’ Aeon, 30 March, 2018. https://aeon.co/ideas/is-meditating-on-death-like-putting-on-a-fur-coat-in-summer
Priest, Graham. ‘Beyond true and false’. Aeon, 5 May, 2014. https://aeon.co/essays/the-logic-of-buddhist-philosophy-goes-beyond-simple-truth
Sinha, Shalini. ‘Notes on Cross-Cultural Philosophy’. Philosopher, 21 July, 2017. https://politicalphilosopher.net/2017/07/21/featured-philosopher-shalini-sinha/
Sorabji, Richard. ‘Gandhi the philosopher’. Aeon, 22 November, 2017. https://aeon.co/essays/gandhi-was-a-subtle-surprising-philosopher-in-the-stoic-style
Wright, Robert. ‘Buddhism Is More “Western” Than You Think’. The New York Times, 6 November, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/06/opinion/buddhism-western-philosophy.html
Wright, Robert. ‘What is nirvana?’ Aeon, 10 May 2018. https://aeon.co/essays/nirvana-can-seem-an-exotic-metaphysical-idea-until-you-look-closer
Wynne, Alexander. 'Who was the Buddha?' Aeon, 17 December, 2019. https://aeon.co/essays/ashokas-ethical-infrastructure-is-carved-into-indias-rocks
[Anyone interested in the history of philosophy in South Asia should head to this section of Professor Adamson’s podcast (this section co-authored with Professor Jonardon Ganeri).]