hire a car Bonn

Obtain A Discount Automobile Rental & Enjoy There is possibly absolutely nothing much better than escaping the rut of daily life and taking place a vacation to a brand-new and unknown area. I like the rush I get by from exporing a new area with buddies or family members. There is nothing worse, nevertheless, than trying to travel to somewhere new without utilizing an auto service to have transport. It has come to be a priority for me in making any kind of itinerary to discover a discount rate car rental well beforehand. I have found out the hard way just how tough it is to make it around a new town or city without the liberty of driving a rental car. I have actually discovered that it is just as difficult to pay a significant cost for a rental vehicle when with a little preparation you can practically definitely get a discount automobile rental. Getting a price cut auto rental does not need to be difficult. All it takes is a little early preparation. Begin your search for a discount cars and truck service as quickly as you recognize the area of your next journey. If you have currently made prepare for where you will remain, after that talking to the attendant at that location can be a terrific source for discovering a price cut vehicle leasing. See what type of bargains you may be able to get as a result of staying at the hotel or condominium you have selected. One more great source for locating a price cut auto rental is by doing an on the internet search. There are many internet sites that will certainly use you offers on locating a price cut automobile rental to enjoy your next vacation. The main factor that I am a supporter of browsing tough to find discount rate cars and truck leasings is that it maximizes extra money for you to appreciate on other aspects of your holiday. There are a lot of things to see and so lots of enjoyable experiences to have that I make sure no one wants to put a huge component of their spending plan into a vehicle rental. Vacations as well as also service trips are indicated to get us out of the tension and busyness of every day life as well as enable us to delight in some of the straightforward enjoyments that life uses. Find out just how to get a discount rate auto leasing as well as you'll be well on your way to taking pleasure in a fantastic vacation filled with too many advantages to spend your money on. Take my suggestions. There are discount rate automobile services to be had, they simply have to be discovered.

List of Cars characters

This is a list of characters from the Pixar franchise Cars, as well as the Disney franchise Planes, which is set in the same fictional universe: Montgomery "Lightning" McQueen often referred to as "Lightning McQueen" is voiced by Owen Wilson in the films, Mater and the Ghostlight, the Cars video game and the last episode of Cars Toons: Tales from Radiator Springs and by Keith Ferguson in all other media. McQueen is not modeled directly after a specific make and model, although his design contains some elements inspired by the Chevrolet Corvette C6. His Corvette lineage is further suggested by the "retro" paint scheme he acquires in Radiator Springs, which resembles that of a Corvette C1. He owns a Racing Academy Team with Doc Hudson called the "Doc Hudson Racing Academy" (now it is known as the "Lightning McQueen Racing Academy" after Doc's sudden passing) where he trains rookie racers in the act of speed and good sportsmanship. Together with his friends, Cruz Ramirez and Tow Mater, Lightning McQueen's Racing Academy is a popular racing school in the world of Cars. On special races, McQueen gets modified for special occasions. His most common one is his Monster Truck form who refers to as Monster McQueen and uses it for monster truck rally races against Count Spatula, The Crippler and Ginormous. As Monster McQueen, Lightning can shout lightning related threats to his monster truck opponents when he passing them or gets passed. For his visit to Santa Carberera, Lightning McQueen gets modified in his beach racing modification. Beach Racing McQueen has a red and yellow paint job with a black lightning bolt and his number 95 in yellow in a white circle on his sides. He also has chrome rims and a black spoiler on the back. He does not have his sponsor on his hood, sides or back. For his visit in Motoropolis City, McQueen get upgraded for street racing. Street Racing McQueen has a custom modification to his body with multiple air intakes on his hood and sides. His red paint job appears a little brighter and has black stripes going through the middle of his body and on the sides with his number in black with red outlines inside a white circle. He has two chrome exhaust pipes on his sides, custom street racing Lightyear tires and a drag racing wheelie bumper on his back. This form is one of Lightning's fastest upgrades. McQueen gets upgraded for Off Road Racing in Autovia. Off Road Racing McQueen has an off-road racing suspension and racing tires to tackle unstable terrain as well as two sets of rally headlights on his hood and roof. His paint job has a different shaped 95 in yellow and a white lightning bolt design on his sides. His sponsor is also printed on his hood and sides. His exhaust pipes were moved to the back with this mode. For the final race against Chick Hicks at the Radiator Springs Speedway, Lightning McQueen get modified specially for this event. Speedway McQueen is his fastest of his previous upgrades. His custom upgrade is an extremely aerodynamic design with side air intakes on his front and an extra air intake on his rooftop. He also has an orange lightning bolt sticker over his front fenders and a striking lightning bolt and his number in a combination of yellow and orange. He also has chrome racing tires and a red rear wing for downforce. His exhaust pipes are also at the back giving a high pitch stock car racing roar. It is said that Lightning's Speedway engine has 850 horsepower and a top speed of over 200 mph. He used this mode to beat Chick Hicks who was also upgraded for speed like Lightning. Mack (voiced by John Ratzenberger) is a 1985 Mack Super-Liner bearing license plate "RUSTEZ3". A dedicated member of the Rust-eze Medicated Bumper Ointment Team (and now Dinoco Oil), having the role of McQueen's (and now Ramirez's) transport, Mack pulls Lightning McQueen's (and now Ramirez's) trailer to his (and now her) races. Lightning's one loyal teammate after his entire pit crew resigns in protest at the end of the season decider, he inadvertently sets up the predicament suffered by McQueen throughout the movie. The grill on him suggests a nose and his top cover (with the Rusteze logo) suggests a Lumberjack hat. McQueen exhorts Mack to drive through the night to his tiebreaker race with Chick Hicks and The King in Los Angeles, despite federal DOT regulations which legally grant Mack ten hours daily of much-needed off-duty rest[1] alongside "all those sleeping trucks" at the last truck stop on I-40. Lightning hopes to reach the venue first and to hang out with the Dinoco team. As a result, Mack falls asleep and, distracted by the Delinquent Road Hazards (who attempt to push him off the road to the shoulder), loses Lightning. Mack arrives in Radiator Springs after Doc reveals Lightning's location and is both very relieved ("Thank the manufacturer, you're alive!") and apologetic ("I'm so sorry I lost you, boss. I'll make it up to you..."). Lightning, who is glad to see him, forgives him. Mack acts as Lightning's pit crew for the big race (since he has none) and worriedly asks if he's alright when he spins out, just before Doc and the others show up to help. Following the race, he congratulates McQueen on his loss for helping Strip Weathers after he is taken out. During the closing credits, Mack views automotive versions of previous Pixar films (such as Toy Car Story and Monster Trucks, Inc.) at a restored 1950s drive-in cinema. Commenting on other characters played by John Ratzenberger (including Hamm the piggy truck and the Abominable Snowplow), he eagerly applauds each of them until he realizes they're all played by the same actor, then demands to know "What kind of cut-rate production is this?!". "This one is a homage to my father... John Lasseter knew that my father drove a Mack truck and that's why he gave me this character. The truck was one of my first loves because I used to ride around with him in it from time to time."Allentown Mayor Ed Pawlowski proclaimed April 21, 2006, Friday Mack Trucks-Disney/Pixar "Cars" Day[3] in Mack's honor during the 41-city "CARS Road Trip '06" promotional tour.[4] Mack is seen in the short Mater and the Ghostlight after Lightning established his headquarters on US Route 66. In Cars 2 he appears in a pair of brief cameo appearances at the start and end, where his two lines are "Oh, his best friend greetings. They get longer every year," and "Oh, those two are perfect for each other.". He appears in Cars 3 with a much larger role compared to Cars 2. He is still working as McQueen's transport. 4 months after McQueen's accident, he is in Radiator Springs and takes McQueen, Luigi, and Guido to the Rust-eze training center. Later, he takes McQueen, Cruz, Luigi, and Guido to the Thunder Hollow demolition derby circuit and after arriving, he comes up with the idea to disguise McQueen. On their way back, he is forced to pull over when Cruz opens his hauler and decides to part ways. He accompanies McQueen to pick Cruz up again and they head to Thomasville, and then to the Florida 500. In a deleted scene, before McQueen heads to the tiebreaker race in California, Mack heads to a truck stop, after his grill is covered by a moth blizzard, to be washed. A still impatient McQueen comes outside the trailer to chase after Mack, and that is how he was lost. In another deleted scene, albeit a dream sequence where McQueen is in radiator springs, his V8 Alcohol motor is inside a steamroller, and Mater borrows his body; Mack makes a mistake, thinking Mater is McQueen, and takes him to the race. Lightning McQueen's pit crew are generic forklifts who only appear at the start of the film, never to be acknowledged again. They quit after McQueen said that he is a one-man show. One of them, presumably the acting crew chief is voiced by Mike Nelson. After the official crew chief had decided to quit, he is referred to by McQueen as "Chuck", and retorts angrily afterwards, "And my name is not Chuck!". In the credits, he is referred to as "Not Chuck". They appear in the film (only to leave almost immediately) to show McQueen's selfishness and inability to work with others. McQueen had a crew chief before the film, but was not seen in the film, because McQueen fired him (believing he was a one-man show, which later came back to haunt him for his return). The chief was mentioned several times at the Dinoco 400 race. The crew is later replaced by McQueen's friends from Radiator Springs and Mack for the big race. In Cars 2, McQueen has apparently hired a new pit crew as he mentions having given them all a vacation when asked to attend the World Grand Prix, but his friends from Radiator Springs again offer to become his crew for a race and he accepts. Not Chuck returns in Cars: Race-O-Rama as a playable character in the Guido Kart races (a Cars version of Mario Kart). He still has his Rust-eze paint job from the film despite quitting on Lightning's team for four years. He may have a change of heart and rejoined his team after McQueen's good sportsmanship now. Harv is Lightning McQueen's agent. Never seen on-screen, McQueen speaks to Harv via his speaker phone when McQueen and Mack are en route to the tiebreaker race and again when Mack is in Radiator Springs to pick up McQueen. Consequently, very little is known of Harv's character except that he threatened to fire Mack if he doesn't get McQueen into his trailer. Harv is voiced by Jeremy Piven in the U.S. version and The Grand Tour presenter Jeremy Clarkson in the UK version. He is also based on the character Ari Gold from the HBO series Entourage. Although he is not seen in the actual film, Jeremy Clarkson believes that he is a 1979 Ford Granada Ghia, while in the American version, he is thought to be a 1996 Oldsmobile. The Rust-eze Brothers, Rusty and Dusty, are the spokescars and owners of Rust-eze, the team that sponsors Lightning and that gave him his "big break", but they are somewhat awkward. Rusty is a 1963 Dodge Dart and Dusty, a 1967 Dodge A100.[5] Rusty and Dusty are voiced by real-life brothers Tom and Ray Magliozzi (respectively) of National Public Radio's Car Talk, using that program's closing line "...and don't drive like my brother!". Rusty bears an intentional resemblance to Tom Magliozzi's infamous green 1963 Dart, named "The Dartre".[6] https://vignette.wikia.nocookie.net/pixarcars/images/c/c5/Dusty.GIF/revision/latest?cb=20191018182529 Dusty Rust-eze They appear three times in the first film, at the beginning with McQueen looking forward to leaving them, in the middle very briefly being interviewed and at the end after the tiebreaker race when McQueen realises he is happy with them. In a deleted scene on the DVD, much of their dialogue (heard at the sponsors' tent in the final script) was originally part of a brief stop at the Top Down Truck Stop. On the die-cast cars, Rusty's license plate states "Rust" and Dusty's sports "Eze". Their license plates are from "R Fair City", a term the Car Talk brothers use to describe their home town of Cambridge, Massachusetts. They appear four times in the third film, when they talked with McQueen about his winnings, McQueen was going to see Cal Weathers, when the Radiator Springs gang members and McQueen were talking on the phone and at the Rust-eze racing center to hand the sponsor over to Sterling. Following Tom's death in 2014, unused archive recordings from the first film were used to provide Rusty's speaking parts in Cars 3. The Doc Hudson Racing Academy Students (voiced by Chris Edgerley And Joe Smith) are a group of four young race cars who were taught to race from Doc Hudson and Lightning McQueen in Cars: Race-O-Rama. They are all modeled as the same model, but with different modifications and blue, white, grey and black paint jobs: Student 1 has one stripe going down the center and a small spoiler, Student 2 has three stripes on each side, one white, one gray and one black, and a big black spoiler, Student 3 has white on the top and bottom and Student 4 has a decal on each side which resemble scratches. They usually race in the Race-O-Rama alongside Lightning McQueen, learning different techniques and movements for racing while Doc Hudson communicates them as crew chief. After Doc's passing, Lightning McQueen now teaches this group of students with Cruz Ramirez and Smokey helping him out. All four students are playable in Cars: Race-O-Rama. Doc Student 4 does not appear in any of the races in the game. Since he is not playable on the PlayStation 2 version, he does not appear at all. Sterling is a billionaire and the new owner of the Rust-eze Racing Center. He reveals himself to be a fan of Lightning McQueen. He assigns Cruz Ramirez to train McQueen and prepare him for the Florida 500. After watching McQueen's poor performance on the simulator, Sterling attempted to convince McQueen to retire and become a racing brand. McQueen convinces him to give him a chance at winning the Florida 500, then McQueen could decide when to stop racing. Sterling reluctantly agrees. At the Florida 500, Sterling reveals himself as greedy and self-centered when he cruelly ordered Cruz to leave and resume her job as a trainer. Against Sterling's will, McQueen puts Cruz in the race. After Cruz wins, Sterling asks her to race for him, but she refuses and quits. Tex Dinoco, owner of Dinoco, purchases Rust-eze from him, allowing Cruz to race and McQueen to train her. He is voiced by Nathan Fillion.[7] A personal voice command assistant to Cruz Ramirez that is able to track McQueen's speed through his electronic suit. Played by British Formula One driver Lewis Hamilton.[8] Cruz Ramirez, a Hispanic female, is Lightning McQueen's trainer and technician at the Rust-eze Racing Center. Inspired by the Nissan 370z and the 2012 Ferrari F12 Berlinetta. She is known for training some of the best newer elite rookies through her unconventional training methods. She is assigned to train McQueen for the Florida 500. She attempts to train McQueen at Fireball Beach, but McQueen ends up teaching her how to race on sand. After surviving a Demolition Derby, which Cruz wins, McQueen lashes out on her for wasting his time and humiliating him on TV. Then, Cruz reveals that she always wanted to be a racer, but never found the confidence to do so. Cruz and McQueen reconcile and head to Thomasville where they meet the former crew chief of Doc Hudson, Smokey. Smokey trains McQueen and inspires Cruz as well. At the Florida 500, Cruz is sent back to the Racing Center. McQueen exits the race to allow Cruz to race. Using what she's learned on the road, Cruz catches up to Jackson Storm, who tries to overtake her. However, Cruz flips over him and lands in first place. She begins to race for the Dinoco team, sporting Doc's former #51, with McQueen as her mentor. In the post-credits, Cruz has won the Piston Cup with Lightning by her side. Cruz is voiced by Cristela Alonzo.[9] She returned in Cars 3: Driven to Win as one of the main characters and a starting playable character along with Lightning McQueen, Mater, Sally, Ramone and Guido. The Rust-eze Racing Center Trainees are a group of Next-Gen Piston Cup racers mostly painted chrome grey and have different colored spoilers, bumpers, Lightyear racing tires, and sideskirts. Each trainee is identified with a Rust-eze Racing Center logo on their sides as well as a trainee number on their sides and back. There are currently at least 12 trainees at the Rust-eze Racing Center who perform a wide variety of exercises, get tested for performance, and even race on the simulator to hopefully become Piston Cup Series racers for the Rust-eze Racing team if Lightning McQueen announces his retirement. They're named as follows: Strip Weathers, better known as The King, is a "Dinoco-blue" veteran racecar and racing legend voiced by NASCAR Hall of Famer Richard Petty. Weathers is an anthropomorphic version of Petty's aerodynamic 1970 Plymouth Superbird, sporting same shade of blue and Petty's racecar number, 43.[10] He is one of the racecars in the 2006 Piston Cup three-way tie, along with Chick Hicks and Lightning McQueen. His sponsor (Dinoco), like Petty's (STP), is a well-known oil company. He is Dinoco's "Golden Boy", having won seven Piston Cups[11] (the same number of NASCAR Cup Series championships Petty himself won in his career) and is hoping for his eighth in the tiebreaker race before entering retirement. He tells McQueen to remember the importance of his team, but the rookie does not pay any attention, being more preoccupied with the thought of taking over the Dinoco sponsorship after Weathers' retirement. On the final lap of the tie-breaker race, Hicks rams into Weathers, sending him into a dangerous rollover. When McQueen sees this, he realizes that Weathers' career might end the way Doc Hudson's did. After stopping short of the finish line, allowing Hicks to win, McQueen pushes Weathers across the finish line to let him finish his last race before his retirement, much to the audience's delight. Weathers is last seen visiting the racing museum in Radiator Springs with his wife and another Piston Cup racer, "Junior", stating that Hudson was his inspiration (In NASCAR, "The King" #43 is the second of four generations of racers; his father Lee Petty won his first Cup in 1954, one year after the multiple Fabulous Hudson Hornet victories). He returns in Cars 3 as the crew chief of his nephew and new Dinoco racer Cal Weathers with Richard Petty reprising his role as the voice of The King. He is only shown in the first race of the film, where he tells Cal nice comeback after he gets his tires for a pit stop, and when he and his nephew pass the sponsorship to Cruz Ramirez after she wins the Florida 500. His only line in the film is "Nice comeback, Cal". (In real-life, Petty's nephew Trent Owens, son of his wife Lynda's brother Randy, is a Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series crew chief.) In the Danish edition of the movie, the King is voiced by nine-time 24 Hours of Le Mans winner Tom Kristensen. In the Finnish edition of the movie, The King is voiced by Finnish two-time Formula One World Champion Mika Häkkinen. In the German edition, he is voiced by Austrian three-time Formula One World Champion Niki Lauda. Strip Weathers also appears in the film's video game as an unlockable character in the Arcade. He is mentioned by Darrell Cartrip in the game's Story Mode before the first Piston Cup race at the Palm Mile Speedway. He also appears in Disney Infinity. Lynda Weathers, also known as "Mrs. The King", (voiced by Richard Petty's wife Lynda Petty) is similar in design to a 1974 Chrysler Town & Country (1941–1988) station wagon that brought the Petty family to "The King"'s races during the 1970s. Like Tex, Lynda follows each race from a Dinoco VIP booth, rooting for her husband. Throughout the film, she is constantly shown supporting her husband and she worries deeply when he is flipped by Chick Hicks. After the race, while Chick Hicks is booed for wrecking her husband and winning the Piston Cup, she kisses Lightning on the cheek and tells him thanks for helping her husband finish his final race. During the ending credits of Cars, Mrs. The King can be seen at the Doc Hudson Museum with her husband and Mater as a tour guide throughout the museum. She asks to see and meet Doc Hudson, but Mater is unsure of his whereabouts at the present time – but assumes he is out racing, most likely with McQueen (which turns out to be true). Cal is a new Dinoco racer. Took over as Dinoco racer after his uncle Strip Weathers retired and became his crew chief. Cal Weathers is numbered 42, and is a blue Capital Motors Mark II Piston Cup Stock Car with blue rims. He often races with Lightning McQueen and Bobby Swift and constantly pull pranks with each other after a race. Unlike his uncle, he seemed to be one of the weak Dinoco racers and never won any Piston Cups (according to Tex as a joke when he talks to Cruz Ramirez on joining Dinoco which in reality, he won two Piston Cups in the past), though he does win some races as shown when he beats McQueen in a close finish at Rocker Arms Speedway. He later retires when new next gen racers including Jackson Storm take over the sport. He is voiced by real-life driver Kyle Petty who is Richard Petty's son. Tex Dinoco, voiced by Humpy Wheeler of Charlotte Motor Speedway, is the billionaire owner of Dinoco.[12] Packaged as "Tex Dinoco with bullhorns" as a diecast car, he is simply called "Tex" in the film's credits. He speaks with a Carolina accent and resembles a 1975 Cadillac Coupe de Ville[13] at The Big Texan Steak Ranch in Amarillo. He is the King's manager and sponsor. Unlike Lightning's agent (Harv, who doesn't watch the race), Tex is an avid race fan who would never miss a race. As a supportive and long-time friend of both Lynda and "The King", he has been a loyal fan of "The King" for many years and boasts that The King "has made Dinoco proud". After Chick Hicks wins by employing a PIT maneuver to sabotage The King in the final lap of the tiebreaker, sending King into a dangerous rollover crash, Tex (angered by Hicks' unsportsmanlike driving) offers the lucrative sponsorship to Lightning with the explanation that "there's a whole lot more to racing than just winning" this is an echo of a line that McQueen used at the end of the race shown at the start of the film but with an entirely different meaning. However, McQueen turns down the offer, opting to stay with Rust-Eze. But Tex does tell McQueen, "If there's ever anything he can do for him, just let him know." He returns for Cars 3 as the sponsor for Cal Weathers. After Cal retired, Tex sought to have newcomer Cruz Ramirez to race for him after watching her performance in the Florida 500. He also purchases Rust-eze from Sterling and allows Lightning McQueen to sport a new paint job (it looks just like Doc's old paint job). The Dinoco Transport Helicopter is based on a Bell 430. Without a speaking part, he has no voice actor and is not named in the closing credits. His name is Rotor Turbosky (in apparent reference to helicopter maker Sikorsky) in the die-cast Cars toy collection. He is seen on top of the Dinoco tent during the races. Mater gets a ride over Radiator Springs at the end of the film, a favor which Lightning had promised Mater earlier when dreaming of the big trophy and the big sponsor (Dinoco) with the fancy helicopter. Chick Hicks (voiced by Michael Keaton in Cars, Bob Peterson in Cars 3) serves as Lightning McQueen's primary rival in the first film. He is a green 1979 Shyster Cremlin, "a generic Pixar design, 'a stock 1980s American car'" according to Pixar publicity coordinator Amanda Sorena,[14] and strongly resembles a GM G-body with features from both the Chevrolet Monte Carlo and the Buick Grand National. As the real-life General Motors wanted nothing to do with the character by rejecting an initial Pixar proposal to cast a Chevrolet stock car as the movie's villain, Chick is effectively an orphan.[14] He has spent his entire career trailing Strip "The King" Weathers, and is bitter about this fact. One of his most notable quotes in the movie is “Kachicka” which he uses as his version of Lightning McQueen's quote “Kachow”. His racing sponsor is Hostile Takeover Bank, or HTB. His pit crew generally mock Guido as compared to them he is very small, however they are surprised when Guido shows off his extremely quick tire changing capabilities. Hicks' racing number is 86, a reference to 1986, the year Pixar Animation Studios was founded; 86 itself is also a slang term for destroying or getting rid of something. Since 86 is twice the number 43 (King's number), it could also be an allusion to his entire career in relation to King. Hicks is extremely determined to win to the point that often he turns to unsportsmanlike conduct to do so. Hicks cheats his way through all of his races by ramming other cars or sideswiping them via the PIT maneuver in an attempt to cause racing incidents for his own benefit. He despises and mocks McQueen, adopting the nickname Thunder which McQueen previously used as a put-down (McQueen: "Because thunder always comes after 'lightning'"). Hicks is also equally antagonistic towards The King, having come 2nd or 3rd place to The King his entire career. While McQueen is presumed missing, Hicks tries to take away McQueen's fans and increase his fame. During the final lap of the tiebreaker race, Hicks (refusing to come in behind Strip Weathers again) PITs The King, sending him flying off the race track and into a rollover wreck on the in-field. He expects a huge ovation after McQueen deliberately gives up the Piston Cup in order to help Weathers, but nobody cheers Hicks on once he wins because they're fed up with his dirty tricks. Shortly afterwards, as Hicks gets on stage to claim his trophy and celebrate his victory, an angered crowd and media snub Hicks' victory by branding him a cheater. He is then pelted with discarded tires and booed off the stage with his trophy in humiliation. The immediate backlash is similar to backlash against Rusty Wallace after he spun out Darrell Waltrip in Turn 4 during Segment 3, Lap 9 of the Sprint All-Star Race V at Charlotte Motor Speedway, sending Waltrip spinning into the grass. In the film, a lucrative corporate sponsorship is at stake. Hicks and McQueen both share the dream of being the new face of Dinoco Oil, a firm long represented by retiring champion #43 "The King". They race on the assumption that winning the championship cup will land them the big sponsor, however, Dinoco owner Tex offers the sponsorship to McQueen, stating that there's more to racing than winning. He returns in Cars 3, being voiced by Bob Peterson since Keaton was unable to reprise the role due to schedule conflicts with Spider-Man: Homecoming in this film he now hosts his own talk show, Chick's Picks on Racing Sports Network and replaces his HTB sponsor stickers with the RSN ones after his company went bankrupt. He constantly boasts about his previous Piston Cup championship and cracks jokes at McQueen's expense as Jackson Storm takes over the sport. He also interviews him after he wins one of the races in Hartland Motor Speedway. Chick returns in the Cars video game, which is written by Pixar and considered a continuation to the story started in the movie. In the game, he is less rude than he was in the movie. He is first seen spying on Lightning's practice sessions with Doc Hudson. In Palm Mile Speedway, he ineffectively taunts Lightning before the first race of the season until Doc warns him off, then falls in with a gang of New York-based greaser cars in Carburetor County to challenge McQueen. Before the next Piston Cup race in Smasherville Stadium, the DRH gang jumps Mack on the interstate to steal McQueen's racing gear, but finger Chick as the one who hired them when caught by the Sheriff which he later confronted him there at the track with Chick refusing to believe. After Lightning won the race, Darrell Cartrip prepares to interview both Lightning and Chick only to see them dur a heated argument. Darrell soon stopped this saying Lightning did won the race (with the tapes to prove it). Lightning McQueen soon challenged Chick Hicks to a three series Radiator Springs Grand Prix race in Radiator Springs, Tailfin Pass and Ornament Valley with the RSN filming the race before the last Piston Cup race in LA Speedway which he accepts before encouraging his fans on the TV camera to see him win the Piston Cup trophy for real this time, but only loses to McQueen afterwards. In the Cars Race-O-Rama video game, he seeks revenge by attempting to close down McQueen's racing academy to start his own in Radiator Springs, he also gets himself modified in the final Race-O-Rama race after seeing Lightning McQueen modified from Santa Carberera, Autopia, Motoropolis and later Radiator Springs. After his modification upgrade, he refers to himself as a high performance and custom racer whose gonna take McQueen down. Most of his Piston Cup sponsor stickers were removed and he gains a "Motor-Co" sticker for Chick's modifications and keeps his sponsor and his number 86 on his body. He also gains a black spoiler for downforce and his top part of his engine was exposed. Like his friends, Chick Hicks has a smokescreen unit equipped attempting to slow down McQueen but he gets defeated at the end, vowing for his revenge on McQueen. But his friends, Candice, Stinger and El Machismo turned against Chick and apologized to McQueen about their previous behavior which he accepted their apology and invited them to Lightning and Doc's Academy anytime who greatly accept. His catchphrase is "Ka-Chick-Ah!", a blatant rip-off of McQueen's catchphrase "KA-CHOW!".[clarification needed] Despite the fact he did not appear in Cars 2, he does show up in the film's video game as a downloadable character for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 editions. He also appears in Disney Infinity. He also appears in Cars 3: Driven to Win which he does post race interviews with Mater, Smokey, Natalie Certain and Miss Fritter as well as giving out racing news praising for the other racers winning performance/making comments about their loosing performance, making jokes about Lightning McQueen's losing or insulting him for winning (again), or show off Chick's winning performance or make excuses about his losing streak. He is also a playable character after defeating him and 99 clones of him in the master level event, Chick Hicks Takedown at Thomasville's Midnight Run. He also created the "Lightning Storm Cruise", a head to head race for Lightning McQueen, Jackson Storm and Cruz Ramirez at the Florida International Speedway which Chick's Picks with Chick Hicks and the RSN will be broadcasting. After the race, he said that Lightning wasn't done with racing yet and thinks he could have won it faster, and Lightning, Chick and Cruz watch Jackson Storm race against Miss Fritter in Thunder Hollow thinking that he can beat anyone anywhere. He also tries to sabotage Lightning McQueen's racing simulator and shut down Lightning's Academy and start the Chick Hicks Racing Academy (CHRA for short) while racing head to head at Chick's race track, the Chick Hicks Motor Speedway at the Lightning McQueen Racing Academy at Disney's Hollywood Studios in Walt Disney World, Orlando. In the Rioplatense Spanish version of Cars, Hicks is voiced by Marcos di Palma, a racecar driver also known for his brash attitude. In the Ukrainian dub of Cars, Hicks is voiced by Komu Vnyz frontman Andrei Sereda. Besides him, there is a similar character named Ripslinger in the 2013 Cars spin-off movie Planes and its 2014 sequel, produced by DisneyToon Studios. Chick's pit crew are a group of forklifts who do pit stops for Chick Hicks in his races. Like Chick, his pit team are green with black "moustache" grills on their faces and have Hostile Takeover Bank on their sides. One of them is a playa character in Cars Race-O-Rama's Guido Kart races. The Chick Hicks Racing Academy students (voiced by Mark Silverman and Josh Robert Thomson) are a group of race cars who learn to race from Chick Hicks. These cars may look similar to the Doc Hudson Racing Academy students but Chick's students learn how to race dirty like Chick did in the past. Each car is painted green with white, grey and black decals and different modifications. The first one has a white line across the top of his body. The second has white, gray and black diagonal lines across the sides. The third has white on the bottom and top of his body. The fourth has a gray shape that seems to resemble a scratch on the sides. All four of these cars are playable in Cars: Race-O-Rama except for the PS2 version where you only play as one. Unlike Candice, El Machismo and Stinger, they do not apologize to McQueen for their previous behavior. Vehicle Identification Numbers, or VINs for short (voiced and performed by MacinTalk), are white robotic Piston Cup stock cars with grey rims and the black bar codes on their sides. They are actually Chick Hicks Racing Academy students, who are fed up with losing to Lightning McQueen, who went inside a Motor Co. factory in Autopia where the Motor Co. pitties stripped them down and transformed them into these super techno equipped race cars. They speak primarily in robotic phrases like "The numbers compute." Unlike Candice, El Machismo and Stinger, they do not betray Chick Hicks for their aggressiveness (mostly it's because of their programming). In their concept art, VINs were supposed to be modeled just like Chick and have the number 128 on the sides, top and right headlight to go with their bar codes. But their modeled as a Lux Motor Co. Piston Cup V8 who looked similar to Mac iCar in the Cars film and Joltsen and the other non playable Piston Cup cars from Cars the Video Game. Jackson Storm, an arrogant blue-and-black 2017 custom built "next generation" Piston Cup racer, is one of the newer rookies that comes into the racing sport, and the main racing rival of Lightning McQueen in the third installment in the franchise. He set records and won many races, including the final race in Los Angeles and presumably achieved the goal of winning the Piston Cup in his rookie year, which McQueen almost did in the first film. Whenever someone intimidates him, he goes back to insult them and make them lose their focus so he can take back the lead. His racing number is 20 (styled as 2.0) and is sponsored by Ignitr Liquid Adrenaline. His pit crew includes Rey Reverham, three pitties and his hauler, Gale Beaufort. Because of Jackson Storm's record breaking performance and a top speed of 214 mph, Piston Cup sponsors either retired or fired their previous veteran racers in the favor of Next-Gen racers to even the competition against Storm. At the Florida 500, he is overtaken by McQueen's former trainer Cruz Ramirez. He attempts to make her lose focus by telling her that she doesn't belong on a track. Cruz, however, regains her confidence and drives up next to Storm, who rammed her into a wall but Cruz flips over him and lands, in exactly the same fashion as Doc Hudson was shown to do in an earlier scene. Since then, he has been hated rivals with Cruz in races. He returns in Cars 3: Driven to Win. He allows his rivals, Lightning McQueen and Cruz Ramirez time to get prepared to race for the next Piston Cup season (even though Cruz replies she beat Storm once and can do it again) as Chick Hicks created the "Lightning Storm Cruise" a head to head race featuring Lightning McQueen, Jackson Storm and Cruz Ramirez at the Florida International Speedway. After he lost the race to McQueen, Storm was fed up for losing and was determined he could beat Lightning and anyone, anywhere and anytime. As a result, Lightning and Cruz invite him over to race in Thunder Hollow only to end up being chased by Miss Fritter with Chick Hicks recording it for the RSN. Jackson Storm is voiced by Armie Hammer.[15] In the game, he is voiced by AJ Hamilton. He is based on the Peugeot Onyx Concept. He also has some elements of the Nissan GT-R Concept 2020 Vision Gran Turismo and has working laser headlights and taillights (he keeps them off in Piston Cup races). His word Lightyear on his racing tires are blue. Ray Reverham is a pickup truck and Jackson Storm's crew chief. He is always supportive of Storm's performance, and when Cruz attempts to win, he reminds Jackson at any opportunity he can much to Storm's annoyance and tries to ignore Ray's warnings unless he's that serious. He is voiced by the real-life Ray Evernham. Gale Beaufort is Jackson Storm's hauler and painted in the same livery as him. Like Storm, she has working laser headlights and taillights. She is a Next-Gen Semi Hauler. Gale Beaufort represents the pinnacle of next-gen transporters. Whenever she isn't on the road, she's buffing and shining her glossy black paint. Jackson Storm wouldn't have it any other way, as he only wants the best for his racing team. In Cars 3, she is seen after Storm wins his first race at Arizona's Cooper Canyon Speedway who rolls into his trailer, saying he touched a nerve before blasting his hip hop music from the speakers and closed it, allowing Gale to drive away. She currently has no voice actor. These characters live in Radiator Springs with Lightning McQueen, his trainer Cruz Ramirez and their hauler, Mack. Mater is a rusty but extremely smart inspired 1956–57 International Harvester Tow truck and 1955-1957 Chevrolet Task Force and McQueen's best friend, and Holley Shiftwell's boyfriend. He is voiced by Larry the Cable Guy. Since his heroic actions and exposing Miles Axelrod in London, Mater is now known as "Sir Tow Mater" from the Queen of England. Sally Carrera is the town's attorney and McQueen's girlfriend. She is voiced by Bonnie Hunt, and she is a 2004 Porsche 911 Targa. Doc Hudson is the town's medical doctor, judge, and Lightning McQueen's mentor/crew chief, voiced by actor Paul Newman in the first film and its video game and Corey Burton in all other related media. He is based on the 1951 Hudson Hornet. He did not appear in the second film, as it is implied that Doc died, and Newman died in September 2008 from lung cancer. He appeared in Cars 3 in McQueen's flashbacks with audio archives used by Newman in the past. He won three consecutive Piston Cups in 1951, 1952 and 1953 as a racer known as The Fabulous Hudson Hornet, and still holds the most wins in a single racing season with Smokey as his crew chief, corresponding to the first three of the real-life Hornet's production years. The Sheriff (voiced by Route 66 historian and author Michael Wallis) is a 1949 Mercury Eight Police Cruiser police car,[16] bearing Carburetor County license plate 001. Sheriff is painted in the classic law enforcement black and white with a single red light dome, two sirens, and curb feelers. Sheriff was the first resident of Radiator Springs to appear in the original film and the first to meet Lightning McQueen during a police chase when McQueen was speeding through the town, attempting to locate Mack. Upon catching McQueen, who had become ensnared in wires and fencing, Sheriff paraphrases a line used by actor Joe Higgins, who played a sheriff in early 1970s Dodge commercials, as "Boy, you're in a heap of trouble.".[17] Sheriff was known to distrust McQueen; at one point when Sally gives McQueen some gasoline, Sheriff notices McQueen smiling at the road as if he is planning to escape. In reply Sheriff with a glare turns on his gumball in case. Lightning chooses to accompany Sally, rather than making an escape attempt, resulting in Sheriff switching off his emergency lighting. This marks the beginning of trust in Lightning by Sheriff. He later befriends Lightning McQueen, offering him a police escort to California and even giving a few sniffles when he thought Lightning had left after finishing fixing the road (though he denied it, claiming he was glad Lightning was gone), and joins his pit crew for the championship race. In the end credits, Sheriff arrests the Road Hazards (the same ones who separated McQueen from Mack) caught racing illegally (via speeding) to Radiator Springs and have them impounded. As punishment for their crimes, he forces them to repave the roads with Bessie. Sheriff reappears in Cars 2, seeing Lightning and his race crew off to the World Grand Prix. When Mater goes missing, Ramone mentions that Sheriff has Scotland Yard scouring London for Mater. During the climax of the film, Sheriff arrives with the other Radiator Springs residents as new members of McQueen's pit crew in England, and is informed by Mater of the Lemons cars' plot to kill McQueen in order to turn all vehicles in the world against alternate energy and rely on gasoline for profit. Sheriff then has Red the Firetruck squirt water on the Lemon cars during the final battle, and arrests most of the defeated ones with help from Sarge. Then the next day Sheriff cheers Mater on when he is knighted for foiling the evil plot led by surprisingly, the race and Allinol inventor Sir Miles Axlerod. Luigi (voiced by Tony Shalhoub, Michael Shalhoub in Disney Infinity) is a 1959 Fiat 500.[18] He is a Scuderia Ferrari fan, and has followed racing his entire life. His license plate reads 445–108, which is the latitude and longitude for the main Ferrari factory in Maranello, Italy.[19] Luigi owns a tire shop, Casa Della Tires,[20] which is known for its "Leaning Tower of Tires", a tower of several tires shaped like the Leaning Tower of Pisa. His assistant is an Italian forklift truck named Guido. Inside his shop are many framed pictures of World Sportscar Championship endurance racing Ferraris from various points in history. At first, Luigi and Guido do not respect Lightning McQueen when he comes to Radiator Springs (owing to the substantial havoc that he inflicted upon the town when he first arrived), because he is not a Ferrari ("Luigi follow only the Ferraris"), but later on they learn to show courtesy to McQueen, fitting him with whitewall tires, since Luigi is a fan of white tires (having a pair himself). During the final race, Luigi and Guido work as part of Lightning's pit crew, and Guido sets the Piston Cup record in changing tires, taking only 4 seconds to change all the tires, sending the other pit crew into shock. He later congratulates McQueen when he helps The King finish his last race. After the race, a group of Italian sports cars – a Ferrari F430 (voiced by Michael Schumacher) and two Maserati Quattroportes – arrive at his shop, explaining that "Lightning McQueen told me this was the best place in the world to get tires" and requesting "three or four sets each". The presence of a celebrity Ferrari in their store causes both Luigi and Guido to faint from shock and happiness. For the Italian version of the film, Luigi was voiced by comedian Marco Della Noce; one of Della Noce's most popular characters was "Oriano Ferrari", a parody character meant to represent the leader of Ferrari's pit stop crew.[21] In Cars 2, Luigi is a part of Lightning's pit crew, in charge of the racer's tires. In Japan, he is naturally overjoyed to see so many Ferraris at a party prior to the first race of the World Grand Prix. He also hesitantly begins to explain to Mater what a rendezvous is, but he and Guido do not believe Mater when he believes he has a date ("Guido don't believe you!" "Guido still don't believe you!") Luigi and Guido are overjoyed to be back in their home of Italy, and rejoin their large group of family and friends. A little more is discussed of Luigi's past with Guido: Luigi's Uncle Topolino mentions that Luigi and Guido often fought when they worked for him (over things like which Ferrari was the best, and which one of them looked more like a Ferrari, etc.) but they always made up after their fights. Luigi joins his friends in a mêlée against Professor Zündapp's Lemons at the film's climax, and finally believes Mater's claims of a girlfriend when Holley Shiftwell confirms the fact in person at Radiator Springs. Guido (voiced by Guido Quaroni) is a forklift truck, who works at Luigi's Casa Della Tires, and is Luigi's best friend. The only language Guido can speak and understand fluently is Italian, though he appears to understand English, and even speaks a few phrases, including "Pit stop" but pronounced "Peet stop!". His dream is to perform a pit stop for a real racecar. Near the end of the movie, as a member of Lightning's new pit crew, he performs the fastest pit stop in Piston Cup history, speed-changing all four tires in only 4 seconds, shocking Chick Hicks' pit crew who had earlier made fun of him, and causing their moustaches/grills to fall off in the process. In order to preserve the "language barrier" gags between Guido and the other characters in the Italian dub, his lines (and the other cars' lines in Italian) have been rendered with the Emiliano-Romagnolo accent spoken in the town of Modena, Italy, home of the Ferrari car manufacturer and racing team. Alex Zanardi, an Italian race driver who is a native of Bologna, the largest city in the Emilia-Romagna region (and thus presumably familiar with that dialect), voiced Guido for the Italian version. Coincidentally, or as a pun by the authors, the name "Guido" is a perfect homonym for the Italian inflected verb meaning "I drive".[citation needed] In Cars 2, Guido serves the same purpose he served in the first film's climax in Lightning's pit crew throughout the film. He also removed all tires from some of the Lemons when the malicious cars surrounded Lightning and Mater, but is unable to remove the bomb from Mater's nose (engine). Guido does not believe Mater when he says he has a date ("Non ci credo"), but has a jaw-dropping moment when he sees that Mater was telling the truth about his new girlfriend Holley Shiftwell (Guido believe you now! - Luigi). Ramone (voiced by Cheech Marin) is a 1959 Chevrolet Impala[22] Lowrider that owns the Ramone's House of Body Art store, where he paints himself and other cars, including Lightning McQueen later in the film. His garage employs the distinctive architecture of the Tower Station (U-Drop Inn) in Shamrock, Texas. His license plate reads "L0WNSL0", which is a reference to his catchphrase, "Low and slow". He is married to Flo, whose restaurant is next door to his store. Ramone is usually depicted as purple with a yellow and orange flame job, but throughout the film, he changes his paint job every morning (green, yellow, red in the first film, blue in Mater and the Ghostlight) to keep his skills sharp, owing to a lack of customers. This situation changes after Radiator Springs becomes vibrant again. He also likes to drive slow and very low on the road, and is overjoyed when the road is asphalted, enjoying the smoothness of the road. However, he does seem to have a childish side in his personality, as in a scene after Lightning McQueen has destroyed the town's main road, Sally asked Flo what she had in her store, the latter responding "I have gas, lots of gas!", and Ramone and Mater burst out laughing. In a deleted scene that told the story of how Ramone and Flo fell in love, the only customer Ramone has refused to paint was his future wife Flo. When she asked him, "Whassamatta, you too good to paint me?", he promptly and smoothly replies, "No baby, you too good for me to paint," and saying that he could not touch a classic like Flo, which made her heart melt. The story took place in Radiator Springs in 1974. This part was shown in the info on Ramone in Cars Mater-National Championship. Ramone reappears in Cars 2, making a few appearances in the Radiator Springs scenes, though he joins everyone else to help McQueen in England. In the melee scene, Ramone disables one of the lemon cars by spray painting into the car's eyes, blinding him. In the movie Planes, when Dusty cuts off the radios power when El Chupacabra was singing the song "Love Machine", he says Ramone's catchphrase "Low and slow" which causes Chupacabra to sing a romance version of the song. Flo (based on Fran Hauser of Adrian's Midpoint Café and voiced by Jenifer Lewis) is the owner of Radiator Springs only gas diner, "Flo's V-8 Café", and is married to Ramone, the town's body artist. Her license plate reads "SHOGRL", the same as the license plates applied to many Motorama show cars and an abbreviation of the term "showgirl". During the cruising scene, "Motorama 1957" appears above her license plate. According to a deleted scene, she is a Motorama showcar who came to Radiator Springs during a national tour (although there wasn't a Motorama show held in 1957). Ramone custom painted her crew all except her. She asks "What's the matter, you too good to paint me?", and Ramone said "No baby, you're too good for me to paint.". They immediately fell in love. She appears to be inspired by two early- to mid-1950s show cars: the 1951 Buick XP-300 (side trim), and the 1956/57 Chrysler Dart (cockpit, deck lid, and tailfins).[23] Flo reappears in Cars 2 to help Lightning and Mater battle the Lemons (who were sent to kill Lightning by Miles Axlerod). Later, she and Sally are seen swooning over Francesco. In Toy Story 2, Al's car looks a lot like her; she may be a reference to his car. Fillmore (based on Route 66 artist Bob Waldmire[24] — not acknowledged in the film's credits — and voiced by George Carlin in Cars, the Cars video game, Mater and the Ghostlight, and Cars Toons (via archives), Brian George in Cars: Mater-National Championship, Mark Silverman in Cars: Race-O-Rama and Lloyd Sherr in Cars 2, the second Cars video game and Cars 3) is a Volkswagen Type 2 microbus of late 1950s/early 1960s vintage[25] as evidenced by his pointed front turn signals and small rear window. Fillmore's license plate reads "51237", an easter egg which is a reference to May 12, 1937, the birthdate of George Carlin, and is also the ZIP code of George, Iowa.[26] He is a stereotypical hippie,[27] as he has stickers of the peace sign and flowers with his license plate positioned to resemble a soul patch. His name is a reference to the Fillmore East, a venue that was an epicenter for rock performances throughout the 1960s and 1970s (The Allman Brothers, The Grateful Dead, and Jimi Hendrix all made notable live recordings there, to name a few). He owns an organic fuel shop (Fillmore's Organic Fuel) which features several flavors, and believes gasoline companies are lying to the public. He is implied to smoke marijuana,[28] as it is indirectly referenced when he speaks of his organic fuel use.[29] In the morning, when next-door neighbor Sarge plays Reveille and raises the Flag of the United States, Fillmore interrupts Sarge's bugle reveille with Jimi Hendrix's rendition of "The Star-Spangled Banner". This is much to Sarge's irritation, as he yells at Fillmore: Despite this, he is friends with Sarge, and the two can be seen chatting throughout the film. He has a sticker on his rear that says "I brake for Jackalopes". The jackalope is a mythical creature which features in the theatrical short Boundin', shown with The Incredibles. Another sticker says "Save 2D Animation". He has appeared in every Disney Cars game so far. As voiced by George Carlin, Fillmore's voice is similar to "Al Sleet, the hippy-dippy weatherman", a part of Carlin's comedy routine in the 1970s. Fillmore reappears in Cars 2, joining McQueen's pit crew as the fuel expert for the World Grand Prix. Fillmore was re-cast due to George Carlin's death, and was voiced by Lloyd Sherr. Fillmore initially supports Allinol as it supposedly does not use oil, even convincing McQueen it is safe after several accidents involving other cars using Allinol. However, for the final race, Sarge replaces McQueen's Allinol with Fillmore's organic fuel, which is what prevents Lightning from being killed in the race. He appears in Cars 3, once again a member of Lightning's pit crew as his fueler with Luigi and Guido handling McQueen's tires. Fillmore was originally going to be named Waldmire, after a Route 66 resident, but Waldmire, a vegan, didn't want his name to be used, because Fillmore toys would be featured in Happy Meals at McDonald's. Sarge (voiced by Paul Dooley) is a 1941 Willys Jeep. A veteran with a military green paint job and a slightly stylized Sergeant Major (E-9) insignia on his sides, he appears to be a World War II era Willys MB. His license plate reads "41WW2", which indicates the date the Willys MB entered the service of the U.S. Army (1941 World War II). He runs a surplus store, named "Sarge's Surplus Hut", next door to Fillmore and acts as part of Lightning's pit crew, gassing him up during the race. Near the end of the film, he operates a boot camp to train SUVs and 4×4s (some of whom had never been off-road) in rugged and dirt terrain. His recruits include T.J. Hummer, Murphy, Frank "Pinky" Pinkerton, and Charlie Cargo. During the Cars Video Game, Sarge trains McQueen in his boot camp as well by having some formal off-road racing training who McQueen passed in flying colors. Sarge reappears in Cars 2, using assistance from the British Army to aid in the melee against the Lemons. Prior to the final leg of the World Grand Prix, he secretly switches McQueen's supply of Allinol (the alternative fuel developed by race founder Sir Miles Axlerod) for Fillmore's organic fuel blend. Like Fillmore he became suspicious of the fuel after the incidents in Japan and Italy. The change saves McQueen from being killed as part of Axlerod's plot to discredit alternative fuels. Lizzie (voiced by Katherine Helmond), a 1923 Ford Model T Coupe,[30] is the widow of Radiator Springs' founder, Stanley, and the elderly owner of a roadside souvenir and accessory shop (Radiator Springs Curios, which uses the "HERE IT IS" slogan and signage of the Jack Rabbit Trading Post on US 66). Her license plate, "MT23", is a reference to her model and year. Her name is derived from Tin Lizzie, one of the Model T's popular nicknames. She appears to have gone somewhat senile, and has a crush on Lightning McQueen. When she is shown teasing Luigi and Guido in the film, stating "The new road makes your place look like a dump.", Luigi angrily says that she is a crazy, devilish old woman but despairs at the truth of her words and sets to work repainting the Casa della Tires garage to its original appearance. She appears extremely motherly. Lizzie reappears in Cars 2 with a minor role. In the beginning she greets Lightning when he returns, but didn't even know he was gone all this time. She isn't present at the airport but is seen in the end talking to Mack about how crazy Holley Shiftwell is for keeping a dent. She also appears in Cars 3, which would be Helmond's final role before her death. She appears in the Cars Toons: Mater's Tall Tales episode "Time Travel Mater", where her and Stanley's backstories are revealed. Lizzie was originally going to be named Henry F. Ord, after Henry Ford. She also, at one point, originally resembled a Ford Model T "Center Door" Sedan[citation needed]. Red (voiced by Joe Ranft and later Jerome Ranft) is a closed-cab pumper bearing Carburetor County license plate "002". He is shy and emotional which explains why he cries and drives away at the same time. He spends most of his time gardening and washing things, such as the statue of Stanley in front of his fire station. It was stated by Mater that Red "hated" Lightning McQueen, because he accidentally killed his flowers. Later, it is clear that Red had forgiven Lightning McQueen and warmed up to him, especially when he burst into tears and fled when he mistakenly thought that Lightning McQueen left without saying goodbye. While he gasped and sobbed in the film, he didn't really talk. In the first film, he seems to know about tractor-tipping as he used his horn to try and stop a stampede of tractors out of trying to protect his flowers. He formerly dislikes Lightning McQueen and he also dislikes crying and feeling upset and people vandalizing his flowers. Red reappears in Cars 2 as a non-speaking character. He only makes a small appearance at the airport crying as he sees Team McQueen taking off for Tokyo, also in the battle against the Lemons, where he arrives just in time to blast some of the Lemons away with his fire hose. Red appears in the Tales from Radiator Springs short film: Bugged. He was voiced by Jerome Ranft, who voiced Gamma in Up. Stanley (voiced by John Michael Higgins) is Lizzie's late husband who was the founder of Radiator Springs.[30] Stanley was probably based on and named after a Stanley Steamer, a steam-powered automobile. Lizzie, reminiscing, describes him as having been "an awfully persistent li'l bugger for a two-cylinder". A statue of Stanley stands outside the town hall, and although it was broken off its pedestal and dragged through the streets on a wire by Lightning McQueen, it was fortunately undamaged, and another mishap placed the statue right back where it was. Although dead, Stanley continues to exert an influence on the town, particularly over Lizzie, who often talks to his statue in memory of him. Stanley's statue reappears in Cars 2 where he was shown to be less old and broken, possibly renovated. In the Cars Toon, Time Travel Mater, Stanley appears alive for the first time. In the Cars Land theme park, signage commemorating "The Original Radiator Spring" claims that "On this site in the summer of 1909 Stanley, exploring out west, overheated as his radiator water boiled away. Coasting into the shade, he happened upon a life-saving natural spring. Upon this most fortunate discovery, Stanley founded the first settlement in Ornament Valley, and in honor of the oasis, christened it Radiator Springs.".[31] Stanley's Oasis is listed as the first local business in Radiator Springs, although condensers only appeared on Stanley steam cars beginning in 1915. The revised Timeline of the toon shows Lightning and Mater travelling back to 1909, meeting Stanley, and pointing Lizzie out to Stanley, prompting him to approach her to make a sale. A quick stop on their way back to the present allows Lightning and Mater to witness Stanley and Lizzie's wedding. Stanley makes a silent cameo in the Pixar short, Boundin'. Bessie is a non-anthropomorphic tarmac-laying machine that is used to fix roads in Radiator Springs.[32] She was often used by one of the citizens of Radiator Springs, referenced as "Big Al", before the citizen in question left fifteen years ago. When Lightning McQueen accidentally destroys the road by dragging the statue of Stanley, Radiator Springs traffic court judge Doc Hudson sentences him to fix the road with her. While Doc insists "this here is Bessie, finest road-paving machine ever built", a construction trade publication's August 2006 editorial describes her as a "tar-spewing hybrid paver/compactor" and "an ecological disaster" as sometimes Bessie boils over and splats tar onto the car(s) pulling her. "If she doesn’t hit you with a stray spray of hot asphalt burbling in two tanks heated by open flames, the fumes emanating from every orifice would prompt an asthma attack. Aggregate jostles loose in a top hopper, and her black-smoke-extruding exhaust pipes are coated with the remains of decades of paving seasons... In fact, everything is wrong about Bessie except the product she produces when Lightning finally decides to get serious about his civic duty."During the epilogue, the Delinquent Road Hazards have to fix a road in Radiator Springs with her as punishment for speeding. Bessie is a non-living vehicle; she cannot move by herself and she has no voice actress in the film. Frank is a generic red combine harvester that resembles a bull, and the guardian of the tractors (which "moo" as cows). After Lightning McQueen's first encounter with Frank during a night of tractor tipping with Mater, Lightning starts dreaming that he, The King, and Chick Hicks (the last of whom does not survive, getting chopped up while The King and McQueen move out of the way) are beaten by Frank in the tie-breaker race. Frank wins the Piston Cup and gets kissed while Lightning is surrounded by the tractors who are licking him. Later, the tractors end up stampeding into Radiator Springs following a mishap with them on Mater's part. He is last seen with the tractors at the drive-in theatre scenes behind the fence far behind Mack, watching the movie as well. He is also seen in the short Mater and the Ghostlight when Mater races past him, waking him up, but does not chase him. Frank seems to be the soothing and kind master of the tractors and the leader of the herd and also hates trespassers (especially Mater) who step into his farm and bother the tractors. The tractors also appear in Planes and are shown to be sacred in India (India's residents believing they will be reincarnated as tractors). A flashback in the original film devotes a little over a minute to show Radiator Springs in a pre-freeway era when all cross-country traffic would by necessity pass through the town's busy main street. Various old cars appear very briefly in this segment with no names and no dialogue, only to vanish when the town is bypassed. Miles "Meattruck" Malone was a red-cab delivery truck serving the Ornament Valley region; Dustin Mellows, a yellow delivery truck, bore the logo and initials TS for Trophy Sparkplugs.[34] Local cars included Mildred Bylane (a light-brown car leaving Luigi's), Percy Hanbrakes (a brown car towed to Flo's by Mater), Edwin Kranks (a two-tone apple-green car), Hank "Halloween" Murphy (a two-tone orange "Rumbler" with tail fins, named as a parody of the Nash/AMC Rambler) and Milton Calypeer (a blue car on Route 66 at the town limits). In Radiator Springs and the surrounding desert area of Carburetor County, insects are depicted as small, winged VW Bugs (or beetles). The bugs appear at least three times in the original film, hovering around fluorescent lighting at Flo's V8 Café on Lightning's initial arrival, swarming around the windows and the one missing fuel pump at the Wheel Well Motel before its historic restoration, and in the desert where Minny and Van are still quite clearly lost at the end of the film, after the closing credits. (One bumps on the camera lens, leaving a mark on it, and flies off eventually) One also appears in Mater and the Ghostlight, which Mater had confused for the Ghostlight (despite the yellow headlights). The bugs are alive but do not speak (Vroomaroundus Bugus merely buzz with sped-up sounds of an air-cooled VW engine[35]) so they are not named individually and they have no voice actors. Bob Cutlass is an announcer for the Piston Cup races and friend of Darrell Cartrip. He is voiced by Bob Costas, the NBC sportscaster and journalist and his name, like Darrell Cartrip's, is a play on that of his voice actor. The character's name is a reference to the Oldsmobile Cutlass. Cutlass is actually supposed to resemble a 1999 Oldsmobile Aurora, even though the Aurora was never offered in a 2-door model. He did not return for the video game nor Cars 2 nor the video game for Cars 2. However, he did return for Cars 3.[36] He did not return for Cars 3: Driven To Win. Natalie Certain, a red, smarty-pants acting sports car, is an RSN statistical analyst in Cars 3 who also is a friend to Chick Hicks. She returns for Cars 3: Driven To Win. She is voiced by Kerry Washington. Various officials and track employees are seen in the original film but not named in the movie's credits, often because they have no named voice actor or no speaking role. Names and descriptions are assigned to these cars and trucks in the "Cars" franchise to allow the characters to be sold as die-cast toys. Dexter Hoover (a pickup truck atop the flagstand) waves the green flag to start the race, the checkered flag to finish the race and the yellow flag when Piston Cup officials call a caution. Charlie Checker is the official pace car at each race of the Piston Cup Series.[37] Like the Checker taxi cab, he is bright yellow. Race Official Tom, a Piston Cup official,[38] reviews videotape in the replay booth for the photo finish in the first race. Tow is a tow truck who removes injured contestants from the track, dragging a disabled but stubborn Chuck Armstrong away from the Dinoco 400 after a collision. Marlon "Clutches" McKay, security team leader at the Motor Speedway of the South, is a former armored troop carrier.[39] Richard Clayton Kensington (a large Piston Cup security van voiced by John Cygan) chases paparazzi from the replay booth, yelling "Hey! No cameras! Get outta here!" Marco Axelbender, a Piston Cup security guard at the Los Angeles International Speedway, refuses to admit Fred to Pit Row without a garage pass. Brian (voiced by Bob Scott), a pickup truck briefly spotted selling souvenirs at the Motor Speedway of the South, shouts "Get your antenna balls here!"[40] Todd, a Pizza Planet truck, is shown in Cars, Cars 2 and Cars 3. At the end of the first movie, he is seen at the last race. At the end of the second movie, he is seen in Radiator Springs. The Alphanumeros are a group of cars in tight formation, driving at the beginning of the tiebreaker race in position to spell "PISTON CUP" with each letter formed from multiple, matching moving vehicles. Barney Stormin, a small propeller-driven skywriting biplane, writes "PISTON CUP" only to have it obliterated by Marco's formation of three twin-engine jet fighters. The Lightyear Blimp (a parody of the Goodyear blimp), is named "Al Oft". His only line is "Oh yeah! Whoo!" when he realizes that the race ended in a tie. Kori Turbowitz (voiced by DJ Sarah Clark of KLLC's San Francisco Bay Area weekday morning Sarah and Vinny Show[41]) is a 1997 Ford Puma. A news reporter who makes three appearances in Cars, Turbowitz is shown interviewing McQueen on-camera immediately before his original pit crew resigns en masse, is the first to report Lightning McQueen missing, and later obtains a tip from Doc Hudson revealing McQueen's location in Radiator Springs. Chuki is a small, light pink hatchback with a Japanese nationality, living in Tokyo. Chuki has a very small appearance in Cars as she is shown as one of the news reporters who appear in the multi-clip footage of various TV news channels reporting McQueen's sudden disappearance while being transported to the Los Angeles International Speedway for his tie-breaker final of the Piston Cup. In Cars Toons: Mater's Tall Tales episode "Tokyo Mater", Chuki is seen presenting a news broadcast on one of the large TVs installed in Tokyo. In Cars 2, she is seen in the neon advertisement glowboards in Tokyo. Chuki is based on hatchbacks designed according to Japan's Kei car specifications and is voiced by Sonoko Konishi, a senior Pixar animator who was also part of the animation team that won Ratatouille (another Pixar film) an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature.[42] Konishi is credited in the Cars 2 cast for voicing the Japanese toilet assistant that appears in the computerized automated car toilets in Tokyo. Jay Limo, like his voice actor Jay Leno, is the talk show host of The Jay Limo Show, which includes the same famous "brightly-hued skyscrapers" city-landscape in the background. He resembles the latest generation of the Lincoln Town Car, with an extended front bumper to emulate Leno's famous big chin. He remarks "I don't know what's going to be harder to find; Lightning McQueen or a crew chief who'll work with him!" Chuck Manifold (voiced by Teddy Newton), a blue and somewhat-boxy 1980s-style car, is an anchor for Racing Sports Network (RSN) who appears briefly at the end of the last of multiple media reports of McQueen's disappearance with the one line "They are all asking the same question: Where is McQueen?" Dan Sclarkenberg (voiced by Dan Scanlon), a green car and one of two "braking news" desk anchors on MPH 55 NEWS, is one of the announcers of the "McQueen Missing" segments. A pair of helicopters with searchlights (as the first of a large group of reporters in Radiator Springs) are not listed in the film's credits but identified elsewhere in the franchise. The red Kathy Copter (voiced by Kathy Coates) only shouts "We have found McQueen!" twice while the white/yellow Ron Hover does not have a speaking part. Other press cars (not identified in the film's credits) are Houser Boon (a yellow camera car voiced by Michael Bell exclaiming "Show us the bolt!"),[43] Tim Rimmer (a grey tabloid news photo car voiced by Bob Bergen booing Chick Hicks #86 when the Piston Cup is awarded), Hooman (a small brown camera car in Radiator Springs voiced by Hooman Khalili), Dash Boardman (a green camera car at the race), Andrea (a magenta-red reporter car voiced by Colette Whitaker holding a microphone) and Skip Ricter (a brown car who appears outside Los Angeles International Speedway as an announcer voiced by Craig Good; a play on former real-life NASCAR executive Les Richter). Video coverage of the race itself is handled by Racing Sports Network personnel Artie (one of a pair of video control operators and a light-blue car who exclaims "Bob! Darrell! The Hudson Hornet's back!") and Nelson Blindspot (a light-green SUV, one of multiple Piston Cup video camera operators). Both names reference real-life staff who work with Waltrip on NASCAR on FOX broadcasts, Artie Kempner (director) and Nelson Crozier (spotter). She interviews racers after they win and not being afraid to ask questions. Inspired and voiced by Shannon Spake. Mia (voiced by Lindsey Collins) and Tia (voiced by Elissa Knight) are identical twin 1992 Mazda MX-5 ("Miata") sisters who are Lightning McQueen's self-proclaimed biggest fans in the first film.[44] In Lightning McQueen's daydream about the Dinoco Sponsorship, the twins are Dinoco blue, except for the scene in the penthouse, where they are painted gold. After McQueen's disappearance, the twins are devastated that McQueen apparently will not make it to the race. Chick Hicks then swoops in and consoles them, loading them up with his own merchandise and a free Hostile Takeover Bank-sponsored green paint job. Mia and Tia accept the offer, not because they are Chick's fans, but because green complements their eyes. They soon return to being McQueen's fans, turning against Hicks after he deliberately causes Strip "The King" Weathers to wreck in the tie-breaker race. Mia and Tia eventually move to Radiator Springs and are visible briefly as waitresses at Flo's V8 Café during the end credits. Their characters are based on sisters Mary Lou and Christina Mendez at the Midpoint Café in Adrian, Texas, where the café's (now semi-retired) owner Fran Houser is the basis for "Flo".[45] They also appear in the video game of Cars where they challenge Sally to a race to determine who gets a date with Lightning Mcqueen. In a deleted scene on the Cars DVD, the twins were fans who distract Lightning during a brief stop at the Top Down Truck Stop, a venue with "all convertible waitresses", causing Mack to inadvertently leave without him. The implicit reference to toplessness is largely removed from the final script, which has Mack driving straight through and separates the characters on I-40. Mia and Tia appear in every episode of Cars Toons: Mater's Tall Tales except Time Travel Mater and make a cameo appearance near the end of Cars 2 as spectators at the new Radiator Springs Grand Prix. They don't appear in Cars 3 for unknown reasons, as they were replaced by a little red car named Maddy McGear. Albert Hinkey (voiced by A.J. Riebli, III) is an RV who proclaims himself as Lightning's "biggest" fan ("biggest" being a pun because he is such a large vehicle).[46] He is seen in the background of races. He is first seen shouting encouraging words to McQueen as he makes it through the big wreck Chick Hicks caused. He is later seen in the tie-breaker race, cheering for McQueen and is shocked when he notices Doc Hudson. When McQueen chooses to forfeit the win and help Strip Weathers finish his last race, he is shown sobbing when he sees what happens. He is later seen in Cars 3, where shouts encouraging words to McQueen once again. His topside is decorated with rows of Lightning/Rust-eze flags. Hinkey also has a loud horn, which he uses while saying "Ka-Chow!" (McQueen's catchphrase) and the loud noise is a nuisance to fellow spectators. The character is an obvious reference to John Hinckley Jr., the stalker and attempted assassin of President Ronald Reagan who attempted such crimes to profess his love for actress Jodi Foster as her biggest fan. His friend Larry Camper, voiced by Larry Benton, exclaims "Dip me in axle grease and call me Slick! It's the Hudson Hornet!" when Lightning's Radiator Springs pit team arrives for the tiebreaker race. This is a joke on the old Harold Lloyd punch line, "step right up and call me speedy!," which originated (mostly) in his hit silent film called The Freshman Lloyd also made another film called Speedy, which may or may not have been a reference, as it was made three years after The Freshman. Fred (voiced by Andrew Stanton) is a starstruck, very rusty old car resembling a Lada 2107. Everybody knows his name because his license plate holder and license plate read "Hello, my name is" and "FRED", respectively. He is the prop for the recurring gag in the film; when McQueen says his name, he shouts "He knows my name!" twice and, in his excitement, his front bumper (which happens to be his lower jaw) falls off. Later, when he is unable to gain access to the tie-breaker race and Mario Andretti (who would be waved through the gate on sight as a celebrity) likewise reads his license plate, Fred says, "Mario Andretti knows my name! You gotta let me in now!" He is seen in Radiator Springs at the end of the film with bumper stickers for the last three towns (Kingman, Barstow, San Bernardino) in Route 66 (song); when he stops, his front bumper falls off again. He also shows up in Mater National and Race-O-Rama. Fred is one of the many rusty old cars at the Rust-eze sponsor tent for McQueen's personal appearance; others (listed in the "Car Finder" game but not named in the movie's credits) include Jonathan Wrenchworths (the rusted green car in Rust-eze advertisements) and Donna Pits (a rusted 1970s car standing beside Fred). A group of five transport lorries watch the race at a truck stop; two are identified in the "Car Finder" game as Gil (a green Peterbilt) and Paul Valdez (an orange transport with a white stripe and 'PV' on his cap). A group of RV's watching the tiebreaker at the speedway include Barry Diesel (a thirsty RV with a blue Dinoco visor cap, sipping two kegs of Dinoco Light), Bud (a white RV with a jackalope painted on his back), Clayton Gentlebreeze (a white RV with green stripes) and Syd VanDerKamper (a camper van). The "more than two hundred thousand cars" watching the tiebreaker race include Coriander Widetrack (a small purple car holding a model aeroplane), Marty Brakeburst (a grey runabout wearing a Piston Cup antenna ball), Mathew "True Blue" McCrew (a blue car behind a fence with "the King" flag on his antenna), Milo (a boxy green car beside McCrew), Polly Puddlejumper (a small blue car with a blue "the King" crown on her antenna), Swift Alternetter (a green SUV surrounded by RV's), Timothy Twostroke (a dark-red car displaying the #95 lightning bolt on his visor and antenna) and Wilmar Flattz (a small light-purple car with "lightning" on his antenna and "95" on his visor). Maddy McGear (voiced by Madeleine McGraw) is Lightning McQueen's biggest fan in Cars 3. Dale Earnhardt Jr., often referred to as "Junior" or "Dale Jr." is a red Axxelo Fission stock car similar to the Gen 4 Chevrolet SS stock cars that the NASCAR Cup Series used prior to 2007. He is voiced by the race car driver of the same name, and closely resembles the #8 Budweiser Chevrolet Monte Carlo SS that he drove from his Sprint Cup debut in 1999 until his departure to the team his maternal grandfather Robert Gee, Sr. started, Hendrick Motorsports, in 2008. The car's Budweiser stickers are replaced by Dale Earnhardt Inc. stickers; these stickers refer to the same change made in NASCAR games as well as toys in order to avoid alcohol advertising. Junior is seen during the first race (Dinoco 400) and is involved in the wreck caused by Chick Hicks. When McQueen goes missing, Junior tells the Competition Racing Sports Network "I sure hope that Lightning is okay. I would hate to see anything bad happen to him!". At the tie-breaker, Junior wishes The King good luck in his last race, as "you've been an inspiration to me". Junior is last seen at the Radiator Springs racing museum with The King and his wife Lynda, amazed by Doc Hudson's many season winnings during the 1950s. Junior does not appear in the video game nor the third film, due to his sponsor not returning in both, likely because it has gone out of business. (The real-life Earnhardt Jr., his sister Kelley Miller, and their uncles Robert Gee, Jr. and Jimmy Gee, currently operate a second-tier NASCAR team.) A replica of the red livery, with the Hendrick #88 on a Gen 6 Holden Commodore with Hendrick's current Axalta Coating Systems sponsor decals, was used for Earnhardt's final race as a full-time Cup driver in 2017. Mario Andretti voices his eponymous character, who is a former racecar that believes every day is a great day for racing. He is based on the 1967 Holman Moody Ford Fairlane that Andretti drove to victory lane in the 1967 Daytona 500. In the Spanish edition of the movie, Andretti is voiced by Spanish Formula One champion Fernando Alonso. A small green car seen beside Andretti at the entrance to pit lane is identified in the "Car Finder" game as Patty, Mario's personal assistant. She does not have a speaking role in the film. The actual Ford Fairlane that Andretti drove was rebuilt as a Mercury Cyclone by Robert Gee (Dale Earnhardt, Jr.'s maternal grandfather), driven in 1971 by German F1 and sportscar driver Rolf Stommelen for his only NASCAR start at Talladega Superspeedway, then sold to Darrell Waltrip for use his five races in 1972 and the first half of the 1973 season. It later became a Sportsman racer for Waltrip, but was crashed in 1975 at the Permatex 300 Sportsman race (now Xfinity Series race). Abandoned by Gee, it stayed there until a few NASCAR mechanics restored the car in its 1972 configuration as a 1971 Mercury Cyclone (brown #95) in the mid-1990s for a celebration of the 25th anniversary of Waltrip's first Cup start. It is displayed at Waltrip's museum in Harrisburg, North Carolina, and part of an Andretti exhibit at the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame in 2013. (A replica of the car as it looked in 1966 was also part of it.)[47] Michael Schumacher is a 2004 Ferrari F430 sports car voiced by Schumacher himself. He is a Ferrari in reference to five of his seven Formula One championships which were achieved with Ferrari F1. He appears at Luigi's shop at the end of the movie after being told by Lightning McQueen that "this is the best place in the world to buy tires", and asks to order a few sets of tires for himself and a pair of Maserati Quattroportes who accompany him. After Luigi faints from the excitement of having "a real Michael Schumacher Ferrari in his store", Schumacher speaks to Guido in Italian, and Guido subsequently faints. The Italian phrase he speaks is, "I hope that your friend recovers, I was told that you are fantastic." Because of licensing issues, in the Cars toyline, his name is called Ferrari F430 instead of his name himself. Darrell Cartrip, a 1977 Chevrolet Monte Carlo, is a Piston Cup announcer in the first and the third film. A former Piston Cup racer, his character is based on his voice actor, 1989 Daytona 500 winner and Fox NASCAR commentator Darrell Waltrip. An enthusiastic Cartrip uses Waltrip's catchphrase "Boogity boogity boogity! Let's go racing, boys!".[48] Cartrip appears in the Cars video game as a solo announcer; he is a playable character in the Piston Cup VS. and Arcade mode. He returns in the second film as the only of three World Grand Prix announcers to believe it was Lightning McQueen's race to lose. A real-life 1977 Monte Carlo was driven by Waltrip with DiGard Motorsports, finishing a very close second-place finish (11 points behind Richard Petty) for the 1979 championship Cup.[49] Waltrip raced from midway through the 1975 season until the 1980 season driving for the team. The real-life car's original number (DiGard's #88) and green-and-white Gatorade livery do not appear on the character (the livery's design is now owned by PepsiCo). The film's credits list Darrell Waltrip Motorsports (his licensing arm) as the "#17 Car" (known for his Hendrick Motorsports and own efforts in winning three of NASCAR's four majors); Waltrip's various NASCAR entries have included a #17 (three times—two of those he owned, the other belonging to Hendrick Motorsports) and a #95 (the one he drove in his 1972 debut was at one time the real-life former Mario Andretti #11 from 1967 seen in the Cars franchise, is one such). The most famous of the real-life 1977 DiGard Monte Carlos was the infamous "Bertha", displayed at the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in Talladega, known for a weight-reduction scheme (devised by Gary Nelson and Buddy Parrott) where up to 100 pounds (45 kg) of buckshot is dropped on-track on parade laps to lighten the car. A subsequent NASCAR rule change to weigh cars after the race now prevents this type of ruse. Bertha won 19 NASCAR premiership races in its career, including the 1978 Coca-Cola 600, Waltrip's first major. [50] He is the main announcer for the Piston Cup races, along with Bob Cutlass; announcer in Cars and Cars 3; he is voiced by Darrell Waltrip. Van (voiced by Richard Kind) and Minny (voiced by Edie McClurg) are husband and wife. In the first film, they are lost and pass through Radiator Springs while trying to find their way back to Interstate 40. Van refuses to ask directions, claiming not to need them due to having a GPS. Minny mentions that Van did the same when they were heading up to the "Crazy Days" (a parody of Derby Days[72]) in Shakopee. U.S. Route 66, taken off the map in 1985, is conspicuously absent from stored maps in automotive aftermarket GPS units — an omission also noted by Harv, Lightning's agent, and a minor running joke in the film. Both are equipped with car alarms, which they arm after their encounter with Lightning McQueen when he begs them to call for help (they dismissed his plea as madness). After the final credits, Van and Minny are shown dirty and lost somewhere in the desert, having never asked for directions, with Van almost driven to insanity. Their names combine as a pun on "minivan". Van is a 2003 Ford Windstar and Minny appears to be a 1996 Dodge Caravan. Minny speaks with a pronounced Minnesota accent. Van and Minny reappear near the end of the second film. While Minny is mesmerized by Mater's spy story, Van does not believe one word of it until British agent Holley Shiftwell arrives to confirm it, which surprises Van, leaving him mesmerized by her and annoying Minny. In the final scene, when a rocket-propelled Mater rushes past Van, maps that Van was carrying are sent flying. The Delinquent Road Hazards are a group of four modified tuner cars that intentionally cause trouble on the highway: Boost (Purple Neon/Carbon fibre covered 1994 Mitsubishi Eclipse), DJ (Blue 2004 Scion xB), Wingo (Green and purple 2000 Nissan Silvia) and Snot Rod (Orange 1971 Plymouth Barracuda). They get their group name from what Sheriff called McQueen when he ordered Mater to tow him to traffic court. They catch Mack nodding off to sleep on the way to California and amuse themselves by nudging him onto the rumble strips along the shoulder. The resulting vibration causes Mack's trailer door to open and a sleeping McQueen to roll out of the trailer. When the chronically sniffly Snot Rod sneezes, Mack is startled awake, and accelerates away, leaving the still-sleeping McQueen behind near Radiator Springs. During the end credits, the Hazards are caught speeding on the outskirts of Radiator Springs by the Sheriff, who gives chase and places them in the impound lot. Like McQueen before them, they are sentenced to messy roadwork towing Bessie. In the Italian dub, three of the Hazards are voiced by F1 drivers: Giancarlo Fisichella (Boost), Emanuele Pirro (Wingo) and Jarno Trulli (DJ). Boost, DJ and Wingo make a cameo appearance at the start of Tokyo Mater, drifting along the main road of Radiator Springs and shouting insults at the residents before Sheriff gives chase to them. D.J. was voiced by his inspirational actor, E.J. Holowicki. Wingo, Boost and Snot Rod were voiced by Adrian Ochoa, Jonas Rivera and Pixar actor Lou Romano. Tracy Jefferson “TJ” Hummer (voiced by Jan Rabson) is a vain Hummer H1 that Sarge teaches in his boot camp during the end of the movie. Unlike the other SUVs in the boot camp, TJ refuses to go off-road, fearing that he will get dirt on his rims, but Sarge forces him to do so. His name may be a play on the action character T.J. Hooker. The other three boot camp recruits (none of which have speaking parts) are Frank "Pinky" Pinkerton (a pink SUV), Jake Murphy (an orange SUV) and Charlie Cargo. Sven "The Governator" (voiced by Jess Harnell) is a Hummer. His only line is "Lightning McQueen must be found at all costs!" The name and vehicle is a parody of Arnold Schwarzenegger's then-current position as California governor, the first three Terminator films he starred on, and the fact that he was one of the first Hummer H1 owners. Jerry (voiced by Joe Ranft) is a 1979 Peterbilt 352 that Lightning McQueen mistook for Mack. He has the words "Recycled Batteries" on his side. His only line in the movie is a response to McQueen: "Mack?! I ain't no Mack, I'm a Peterbilt for dang sake! Turn on your lights, you moron!" The deleted scene on the DVD has the words "Jerry's Junk" and his only line is shortened saying: "Turn on your lights, you moron!" Various cars and trucks in non-speaking roles are named in the "Car Finder" game but have only silent cameos in the film. Bertha Butterswagon, a small green runabout, watches Mack admiring his own reflection in a metal tanker truck. Leroy Traffik, a minivan with a mattress on his roof and a temporary spare as his right-rear wheel, passes a tired Mack just before the truck stop. He is seen with new tires from Luigi's during the film's epilogue. Ben Crankleshaft, Chet Boxkaar and Oliver Lightload are sleeping trucks at the Top Down Truck Stop. Duff Wrecks is a white pickup truck briefly seen one lane away from the Delinquent Road Hazard gang on I-40. Fletcher (voiced by Corey Burton), and Gerald (voiced by Steve Purcell) are two British race cars who often race against Lightning McQueen in road races around Radiator Springs in Cars: The Video Game. Fletcher is a green 1954 Jaguar XK120SE with the number 3 in red inside a white circle. He is very kind to his friends and colleagues and sometimes be a little bit of a show off in races. Fletcher's colleague Gerald is a dark purple Jaguar XK-E with the number 4 inside a white circle on his doors. Gerald is sometimes a bit shy and rarely talks since he allows Fletcher doing the talking but he did have a speaking role in North Desert Dash where they saw El Guapo bragging about his gold details. They both returned in Cars: Mater-National. El Guapo (voiced by Alex Reymundo) and Papo (voiced by Rafael Sigler) are Mexican race cars who visit Radiator Springs to race against Lightning McQueen in road races around Radiator Springs in Cars: The Video Game. El Guapo is a light green 1975 Ford Crown Victoria with chrome decals and sections of gold painted on his rims, bumpers, grille, and rear-view mirrors. He has the license plate reading "GUAPO" in white instead of brown. El Guapo tends to be a show off mostly because of his bragging of his gold details because he can't take first place if he doesn't look the part. He can have a rivally against Fletcher and Gerald on some occasions but his does appear friendly. Papo is El Guapo's friend who is a purple 1947 Chevrolet Coupe with blue "flame" designs on his hood and doors. Papo is a car with few words and many talents. He has hydraulics and can only speak Spanish. Due to his shape, some fans have mistaken him for Doc Hudson when he appears in race tracks. But he is very different from Doc Hudson. The Queens Gang are a group of four racing muscle cars from Queens, New York who were unquestionably hired by Chick Hicks to race his rival, Lightning McQueen in Radiator Springs: Vince (Red and white double striped 1971 Pontiac Firebird with number 9), Sonny (Pinkish-grey 1971 Plymouth GTX 440+6 with number 0), Barry (Orange and blue 1970 Plymouth Roadrunner with number 8 in a blade spade), and Lenny (Light blue and white striped 1969 Chevrolet Camaro with number 66). The four racers challenged Lightning McQueen to a race in Cars the Video Game around Ornament Valley to prove that McQueen is the best race car around and trained him for the rest of the Piston Cup season. The gang continues their races against Lightning until they revealed that Chick Hicks was allied with the group who tries to help slow McQueen down. All of the cars returned in Cars: Mater-National and their gang symbols made a camo appearance in Cars: Race-O-Rama. Vince is a rather arrogant and confident race car who leads his gang members, Sonny, Barry and Lenny. Sonny is a tough and fast race car with his spoiler giving great downforce. Barry, even though supportive with his group, appears to be more spineless than them, and most of his dialogue revolves around him attempting to impress Vince. But, most of the time gets bumped every single time. Lenny is a strong silent type of the gang. His dialogue consists solely of phrases like "good!" and "not good!", spoken in a rough, low-pitch voice. Vince is voiced by Jerry DeCapua. Sonny is voiced by Quinton Flynn. Barry is voiced by Rob Izenberg. And Lenny is voiced by Greg Baldwin. Mater's Cousins (voiced by Bill Farmer and James Patrick Stuart) are six Rustbucket demolition derby race cars who visited Rustbucket Stadium to see Mater and race him in the "Rustbucket Race-O-Rama". Their names are Tommy Joe, Buford, Cletus, Zeke, Judd and Lewis. Each of these Rustbucket race cars have different body style, different paint job and different personalities: All of Mater's Cousins appear in all of the Rustbucket races in the first four Cars video games often racing against Mater and sometimes Lightning McQueen and Emma. Giovanni (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) is a red 2008 Ferrari F430 heavily tuned for racing with black lining around his doors and windows, and with the Ferrari logo on his hood. He has chrome rims and his license plate reads "G10V4NNI". He is Lightning McQueen's biggest racing fan who inspired him to be a racer himself while watching Lightning's races in his home country of Italy. He appears as one of the main characters in Mater-National and a playable character. When he first arrived in Radiator Springs, he was impressed with Luigi and Guido who are dressed up in Italian colors and didn't notice Lightning McQueen (because he's red like him) until he makes it clear that his is Lightning McQueen. Giovanni reveals to McQueen who is a big fan of him and can't wait to race against him until Lightning decides to have a team rally race which he agrees to race. Luigi and Guido, jealous of McQueen joined his team instead of Lightning's team. He later reappears in the Radiator Springs Speedway (Back then, it was called the Radiator Springs Stadium) with his good friend, Lightning McQueen. Even though he's a friendly racer off the track, he shows the competition no mercy when they are out on the race track. After the Mater-National ended, Giovanni invited Lightning McQueen and his friends to continue the festival in the European Circuit one day which Lightning agrees. Otto von Fassenbottom (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker) is a silver 2008 Audi A4 race car from Germany with the stripes of the German flag over the back of his body, Lightyear single lug-nut racing tires, built in cruise control system and the number 8 on his hood and front doors. He is heavily modified for the LM GTE Pro class in the 24 Hours of Le Cars (a cars version to the real life 24 Hours of Le Mans). He is an endurance racing champion who likes to sign autographs for his fans and has a girlfriend named Jenny who likes to cruise fast on the Autobahn. He appears in Cars: Mater-National as a playable character. When Otto first arrived in Radiator Springs, he was caught speeding by Sheriff who told Lightning McQueen that he was going 120 mph, way surpassing the town's speed limit which was 25 mph which Otto replies he's a race car and doesn't slow down and goes from 0–90 km/h in 2 seconds. But McQueen told Sheriff to let him go and challenged Otto to a three lap race which he accepts (even though he replied that three laps was like a Sunday Drive). After their race, Otto wanted to race Lightning some more which he replied to see the town and go to Lizzie's Curio Shop to buy some souvenirs for his girlfriend, Jenny which he thanks him, only to get himself covered in stickers afterwards. Otto appears in all of the Stadium races in Story Mode and arcade unless you are racing as him. Emma (voiced by Jennifer Hale) is a friendly white and pink rally car from England with a sticker reading "Series 13" on her hood and sides. She has chrome rims and pink mirrors. Her model is most likely a 2008 Volkswagen Scirocco, heavily tuned for rallies. Her license plate is P33LIN. She is a playable character in Cars: Mater-National. Emma is a famous rally car in her home country of England, popular for her personality and amazing racing abilities. During her appearance in Cars: Mater-National, she competes with Mater and his cousins at the Rustbucket Stadium. After meeting Mater for the first time, the two became fast friends and began to develop a relationship. She returned in Cars: Race-O-Rama in the PSP and Nintendo DS versions only. Gudmund (voiced by Scott Wood) (pronounced as good-mund) is a Swedish rally car who appears in Cars: Mater-National and the third international competitor to greet Lightning McQueen (after Giovanni and Otto) and a playable character. He is a VAZ 2107 rally car painted yellow and blue with four rally headlights on his roof to help him see better in dark tunnels. On his roof, he has a vertical blue stripe, as well as a sticker that reads "Rallye Moto Car" (a reference to "Rallye Monte Carlo", along with the number 46. He also has a sticker on his left side that reads "Service" and "46" (his right side features "Service" written in Swedish). He has the word “TURBO” inscribed in yellow on his side skirts and his license plate saying “SWEEDEE” at the back. His biggest fear is the haunted hook. During his visit in Radiator Springs, he was racing out of the Rustbucket Caverns and introduced himself to Lightning McQueen and his friend, Sarge. He challenges them to a race in the dark tunnel. Lightning says that he cannot race because back then, he had no headlights and that he is scared of crashing, but then Sarge gives him his night vision goggles, so now they can race in the dark tunnel. He races in the race, then in the end-scene, he tells about a story about a monster called the Haunted Hook which was a rugged wild beast constructed out of rusty metal with a razor sharp hook behind him. Then Lightning tries to introduce him to Mater. But Mater thinks Gudmund is the Ghostlight due to his bright headlights while Gudmund thinks Mater is the Haunted Hook, so they run away from each other, much to the concern of McQueen. Koji (voiced by Masi Oka) is a Japanese drift racing car and the fourth international competitor to greet Lightning McQueen in Cars: Mater-National. He only speaks Japanese, but can understand some English to what Lightning McQueen said. Koji is painted red with white designs towards his rear, a carbon fiber hood, black spoiler and the word "Kojimoto" painted on both of his doors in white. He is modeled after a Nissan 350Z drift car and a playable character in Mater-National. During his visit in Radiator Springs, he was seen in first place during a race with Otto flashing by in second. Behind them were Sonny and Vince who thought they were in the wrong race, leaving Lightning McQueen curious saying there's a new guy in town. He challenged Lightning to a canyon race around Tailfin Pass. Once the race is complete, Lightning and Koji are having a friendly discussion when Mater comes speeding at them, drifting a turn and hits a bump, where he goes flying across the bridge, and miraculously lands on his tires. The two are amazed at Mater's stunt, which Mater claims that he meant to do. All three monster trucks appeared in the first Cars video games who visit Radiator Springs to challenge Lightning McQueen in monster truck rally races in Radiator Springs, including the ones in Rustbucket Stadium which bring thousands of fans throughout Carburetor County. Spatula also races in select road races in Cars the Video Game as well as Monster McQueen. Since the depute of Monster Mater and Sulley from Mater-National, Spatula is no longer a playable character but he does appear as a computer opponent in all of the monster truck races along with his friends Ginormous and The Crippler. Philip (voiced by Joe Smith), spelled as Phillip in concept art, is a red and tan 1937 Cord 812 Cabriolet and an English tourist. He appears in Cars: Maternational in a cutscene for Radiator Springs Circuit where he almost crashes into Lightning McQueen who was driving in the opposite side of Main Street. After narrowly avoided each other, Lightning asked the traveler why was he driving on the wrong side of the road, which he replied his name is Philip and was still new to America since he is from England who usually drives on the left side of the road as composed to United States regulation say they must drive on the right side. Philip soon quickly realized that he was talking to Lightning McQueen who overreacted in joy and was pleased to meet Doc Hudson, aka the Fabulous Hudson Hornet even after he scolded him for blocking the road. Lightning wanted to give Philip driving lessons so he can get the hang of driving on the right side of the road which his mistook as having a private racing lesson with Fred overreactly volunteers to join. Barry, a member of Vince's group asked the group if there was a race starting which Philip says yes, and against Lightning McQueen and the Fabulous Hudson Hornet (Doc Hudson). At first a little hesitant, but agreed to a three lap race around Radiator Springs. He later reappeared as a opponent in Inside the Turkey and Canyon Run as well as being a fifth opponent in Doc & the Law's race and chase mini game. In the story "Banged Up" in the "World of Cars" book, Doc spotted Philip damaged on the side of the road which he repaired him at his clinic. Philip soon drove away thanking him. Yuri (voiced by Mark Ivanir) is a dark green Russian rally car who strongly resembles a Lada 1200 with the front of a Volga M24-10 and the proportion of a Moskwich 412. His license plate reads "YURIKAA" which combines his name and Eureka. He speaks in a Russian accent. In Cars: Mater-National despite having no appearance in a cutscene, he appears as an opponent in Team Relay 1 with Giovanni and Luigi, Inside the Turkey, Canyan Run and Team Relay 3 with Fletcher and Gerald. Candice (voiced by Tara Strong) is a pink Porsche 911 Carrera (although different headlights) who lives in Santa Carburera, California and was one of Chick Hicks's protégées in Cars: Race-O-Rama before betraying and quitting on him. Her license plate reads “SO HOT”. She has a very spoiled, presumed and selfish attitude almost like a spoiled teenager. After losing to Lightning McQueen in her home town, she gets so upset about losing, that she calls her daddy in her trailer to say that she wants new tires, paint and everything NOW! Her daddy agrees with this and Candice drove off for some shopping. After seeing Lightning beat a modified Chick in the Race-O-Rama finals in Radiator Springs Speedway, she apologized to him along with her friends, Stinger and El Machismo for their previous behavior. She can also translate Stinger's expressions (who only communicates by revving his engine). Lightning accepted her apology and invites her to his racing academy anytime. Candice thanks him and blows him a kiss. El Machismo (voiced by Randy Savage) is a dark blue and orange off-road racing truck whose a celebrity in Autopia and was one of Chick Hicks's protégées in Cars: Race-O-Rama before quitting on him. Like Chick, he was sponsored by Hostile Takeover Bank with his number 13 on his sides. He also has Nitroade and ReVolting sponsor stickers on his sides. His catch phrase is “I'm bigger than big, badder than bad, I am El Machismo!” (A spin-off of McQueen's catchphrase, "I'm faster than fast, quicker than quick, I am Lightning!") After losing to Lightning McQueen in his town, he gets so angry, he blames Chick and Motor Co. for making him lose and asks for bigger tires, bigger shocks, bigger fenders, bigger everything to crush the competition (which Chick Hicks admits he's not that much of a sole loser unlike him). After seeing Lightning beat a modified Chick in the Race-O-Rama finals in Radiator Springs Speedway, he apologized to him along with his friends, Candice and Stinger for their previous behavior. He says to Lightning that he's better than bad, faster than fast which he meant he likes how he races. Lightning accepted his apology and invites him over to his racing academy anytime who greatly accepts. Stinger is an orange 2009 Dodge Challenger muscle car from Motoropolis City with a carbon fiber black hood, a racing spoiler and a Treadwell County license plate that reads "STINGER". He was one of Chick Hicks's friends in Cars: Race-O-Rama before betraying him. He doesn't talk much. He usually communicates by revving his HEMI V8 engine which Ramone regarded him as the strong silent type. After seeing Stinger lost to McQueen, Chick gets mad at him and calls him a steel brain of a worthless bucket of bolts. This made Stinger very angry and rev his engine furiously. But when Chick asked what he had to say for himself, Stinger just drove away. After seeing Lightning beat a modified Chick in the Race-O-Rama finals in Radiator Springs Speedway, he apologized to him along with his friends, Candice and El Machismo for their previous behavior and for being mean to him earlier. Lightning accepted his apology and invites him over to his racing academy anytime. Stinger revs his engine as a thank you to McQueen and agrees of joining him. Bubba (voiced by Lloyd Sherr) is an orange mean tow truck who originally lived in Radiator Springs and is Mater's hated rival. Some cars are born bad, and Bubba is part of the lot. Not very intelligent, he collects defects. For him, every day is a demolition company which he is the prime contractor. Its small size does not matter: it has enough for everyone in malignancy receive him. Bubba once reunited with Mater after several years apart who challenges Mater to race in Rustbucket Stadium for the towing rights to Radiator Springs with his friends Tater and Tater Jr. He has a bully attitude and he's not a very good loser, as he loses the towing racing series to Mater. He says he will come back for revenge on Mater and get rid of him if it's the last thing he does. Bubba first appeared in the story "Hoodwinked" when he found and took Mater's hood (after he accidentally rips it off while show off his fish moves to Buford, Cletus and Judd.) and plays with it with his friend until they get tired and Bubba tosses it into a tree (which Red recovers it for Mater by spraying it with his hose). He later appears when Mater and his cousins head back to town where he challenges Mater to a race, and the loser will buy the winner a tank of gas. Then Mater had an idea. He decided that they should race backwards, because he knew that Bubba can't race backwards. The race track went down Main Street, around the statue of Stanley twice, then back down Main Street to the finish line. Bubba started out in the lead, but he lost control when he went around the statue of Stanley. Mater passed him, and won the race. Tater (voiced by Stephen Stanton) and Tater Jr. (voiced by Andrew Stanton) are two rusty tow trucks that are the proprider of the world famous "'Ol Tater Towing Company" and used to be Bubba's sidekicks but reformed and became friends of Mater in the end. Tater and Tater Jr. have opposite paint jobs of each other: Tater is painted brown, with green doors and a black hat and brown rims. Tater Jr.'s scheme is the other way around - green with brown doors, and with a white hat. Tater and Tater Jr. came all the way down to Radiator Springs with their fellow Bubba to race in the towing racing at the Rustbucket stadium. Unlike Bubba, the Taters are friendly and a little goofy. They didn't win the towing racing series, but they made a new friend (since their names Tater rhymes with Mater's name) and decide to stay a while in Radiator Springs. These are characters who have first or only appeared in the film Cars 2 (2011). Finn McMissile (voiced by Michael Caine, Martin Jarvis in all video games) is a British secret agent who recruits Mater, whom he mistakes for a cleverly disguised American agent, to help in his mission. Caine depicted his character Finn based on his previous role Harry Palmer from The IPCRESS File and its sequels. He is also similar to James Bond, whom Michael Caine did not portray. Originally, Finn was supposed to appear in the first Cars movie. In a sequence that never went beyond the storyboarding stage, Lightning and Sally visited a drive-in theater where a James Bond-type film about a superspy car named "Finn McMissile" was playing. This scene was deleted.[73] The design of Finn is inspired by several cars: the roofline and doors of the Volvo P1800 (possibly inspired by Roger Moore's ownership of one while filming The Saint TV espionage series in the early 1960s, as Moore also portrayed Bond from 1973 to 1985), the grill and fenders of the BMW 507, and some major elements of the iconic James Bond Aston Martin DB5, debuting in Goldfinger (including its sound, as clearly heard in the intro of GoldenEye); he also resembles a 1970s Volkswagen Karmann Ghia. The look of the car has been slightly modified; Finn has a different grill that looks like a suave mustache, but like Bond, he does have plenty of gadgets.[74] His small tailfins were inspired by a 1958 British sports car called the Peerless—one of the few British cars with fins.[75] Finn is fluent in many languages, most notably English, French and Italian. He is outfitted with a plethora of gadgets, including: two (front) bumperette grappling hooks, a right headlight spy camera, a left headlight missile launcher, side mirror digital readouts, a deployable glass cutter, front wheel hub magnetic explosives launchers, side vent deployable machine guns, rear wheel hub deployable surveillance probes, rear bumperette grappling hooks, a rear turn signal oil dispenser, a miniature car that he can deploy (called a "skate jack"), an undercarriage mounted quad harpoon gun, a hydrofoil for oversea travel, a roof-deployed holographic disguise emitter, magnet tires, and a submarine-mode for underwater escapes.[75] Finn made a cameo in Toy Story 3 on a poster in Andy's room. His license plate is 314 FMCM, which includes a reference to his initials. The number 314 indicates Caine's birthday, March 14, the same day as Billy Crystal, another actor for Pixar. His belief about the World Grand Prix turns out to be true, as it was all just a setup by Miles Axlerod to make alternate fuel seem dangerous and make cars run on his own fuel with no choice. Finn McMissile appears in Kinect Rush: A Disney-Pixar Adventure. It was revealed that Finn was a spy who was on the biggest oil platform in the world before he met Mater. None of them knew that Mater was not a spy. He just answered the question correctly. Holley Shiftwell (voiced by Emily Mortimer) is a British spy-in-training who is Mater's love interest/girlfriend in the film. She is a 2011 Jaguar C-X75 Holley's name is a reference to Holley Performance Products, Inc., a manufacturer of high-performance carburetors and fuel systems located in Bowling Green, Kentucky. Her design was made from a Jaguar XJR-15. Her name is possibly also a reference to Bond Girl Holly Goodhead. Her license plate is HS1201, which includes her initials. The number 1201 is Emily Mortimer's birthday in American date order (December 1). Holley is equipped with gadgets including: (front) projection lamps above headlights that emit a heads-up display, headlight cameras; a (side) right wheel concealed gun and an electro-shock device, a telescoping utility arm, (undercarriage) mounted dual trackball platforms for controlling the heads-up display, and retractable wings for flight.[75] Holley Shiftwell appears in Kinect Rush: A Disney-Pixar Adventure. She is a playable character in the Disney Infinity series. Siddeley (voiced by Jason Isaacs) is a Gulfstream V spy jet. He is 176 feet long with a 157-foot wingspan (53 and 48 meters respectively) and is shown to possess afterburners, though no aspect of his airframe is suited to supersonic flight, In addition, he has VTOL (vertical-takeoff and landing) capabilities. His tail has A113 painted on it, a recurring gag in the Pixar films. Siddeley is also seen once in the Mexican Airport in a spinoff movie Planes as a background jet, and twice in its sequel Planes: Fire and Rescue as a visiting VIP (Very Important Plane), and was mentioned to be the cause of the massive wildfire during the third-fourth of the movie. [76] His name is a reference to the British aerospace company Hawker Siddeley. Stephenson is a spy train, who first appeared in Cars 2 working with Finn McMissile. Stephenson brings Finn, Holley, and Mater to Porto Corsa, Italy. Stephenson is a state-of-the-art bullet train, who scrambles switchboards, hops international rail lines, and can make it from Dover to Porto Corsa in five hours. He has no dining car and no spare compartment because he's filled with the finest in high-tech, classified spy gear and probably has a few secret agents aboard. One of his carriages contains high-tech equipment that modifies and adds gadgets to cars. His only line in Cars 2 is "Finn, one hour to Porta Corsa". Stephenson is named after the "father of railways", namely George Stephenson. Leland Turbo (voiced by Jason Isaacs) was a British agent who appeared in the film's beginning. He sends a video message to Finn McMissile about what he sees in Professor Zündapp's oil rig. However, by the time Finn arrives at the rig, the lemons have found Leland and crushed him into a cube. He appears to be based on a Jaguar E-Type. His name is most likely based on Leyland Motors, a now-defunct British vehicle manufacturer. Rod Redline (voiced by Bruce Campbell) was considered by many as America's greatest spy. He is the agent McMissile and Shiftwell were supposed to meet before he ran into Mater, which leads to the mistake of the spy cars thinking Mater is Rod Redline. He is a crossover between a 2005 Mustang GT and a Dodge Challenger R/T. His license plate suggests that he is from Michigan, which is where Bruce is from. In the beginning of the film, he is seen by McMissile (disguised as a lemon) talking to Professor Zündapp about the camera. In the bathroom, Rod takes off his disguise so Finn and Holley can recognize him. Unfortunately, lemons Grem and Acer follow him in the bathroom and his plan backfires when they recognize him before Holley can meet him. Rod tries to fight them off, but the two lemons dodge his tactics and severely damage him. Cornered by the villains, he turns his information over to a rusty American tow truck named Mater before being captured. He is later filled with Allinol at the lemons' hideout. Rod thanks them due to the fact that Allinol is good for cars, but Professor Zündapp reveals to the agent that Allinol explodes when it is hit with an electromagnetic pulse. As it turned out, the Lemons were going to torture him until he told them who the information was passed to. Despite the torture, Rod refuses to reveal the info, but the lemons realize that Redline passed the info to Mater. Redline is killed afterwards. Tomber (voiced by Michel Michelis) is Finn McMissile's underground informant. Having been saved from a long sentence in a Moroccan impound lot (20 years to life) by McMissile, Tomber has since become an auto-parts dealer. He specializes in rare parts, such as the ones needed to keep a certain Rover V8 going. Mater and Tomber get along from their first meeting, both respecting the other's knowledge of cars and specific parts. Tomber (French for "to tumble") is a Reliant Regal threewheeler, a car notorious for its poor handling and tendency to roll over in even gentle turns. His license plate reads "PCS NO1R". He may be based on Del Boy from Only Fools & Horses. Crabby the Boat (voiced by Sig Hansen) is a fishing vessel that is based on the F/V Northwestern, a boat captained by Hansen and featured in the American reality TV series Deadliest Catch. Crabby is painted and designed like the Northwestern. He is seen in the beginning of the film with Finn McMissile aboard him. Finn has paid Crabby to bring him to a certain location in the ocean so he can look for a car, a request that greatly puzzles Crabby. Once they reach the spot, Tony Trihull (see below) intercepts Crabby and threatens him with a missile launcher, forcing him to turn back. Crabby apologizes to Finn as he heads home, not knowing that Finn has already slipped off board and hitched onto Tony to continue his mission. Sir Miles Axlerod (voiced by Eddie Izzard) is a former oil baron who has sold off his fortune after he supposedly converted himself into an electric vehicle. He was the first car to circumnavigate the globe without any GPS which is similar to explorer, Ferdinand Magellan who circulated the globe. Axlerod created the World Grand Prix to promote his new wonder-fuel, Allinol. Axlerod later reveals that he owns the largest untapped oil reserves in the world. His "alternative fuel" is actually ordinary gasoline engineered to ignite if hit with electromagnetic pulses from weapons disguised as television cameras. Axlerod's plans to use oil for world domination are eventually exposed. Axlerod plans to use Professor Zündapp and the Lemon Cars to kill McQueen in the final race, but the EMP weapon fails to finish him off because Sarge switched McQueen's Allinol for Fillmore's organic fuel. As a backup, Axlerod has Zündapp and the lemon cars implant a bomb on Mater's air filter which was not seen in the climax. Mater confronts Axlerod about the conspiracy and forces him to deactivate the bomb with a voice command, proving that he was the one who set it. Axlerod's engine turns out to be the Rover V8 in the photo obtained by McMissile and Shiftwell after Mater opened his front hood (described by Mater and Tomber as "the worst engine/motor ever made"), and he is exposed as a fraud and a liar and he is arrested by the British police. He is based on a Range Rover L322. Professor Zündapp (voiced by Thomas Kretschmann), often referred to as "Professor Z" (by his henchmen), is an internationally wanted weapons designer who is modelled after a Zündapp Janus 250 with a broken roof rack that evokes the look of a comb over. Though at first Professor Zündapp appears to be the main villain, he is eventually revealed to be a subordinate to Miles Axlerod. According to Lego.com, it is revealed that his full name is Wolfgang Otto Zundapp. Zündapp also appears in Kinect Rush: A Disney-Pixar Adventure. Grem (voiced by Joe Mantegna) is a dented, rusty orange AMC Gremlin. Acer (voiced by Peter Jacobson) is a beat-up green AMC Pacer. Both of these "lemon" cars are henchmen for Professor Zündapp, Grem and Acer mistake Mater for an American agent with top-secret information, chasing him around the globe. Even though they don't have all the spy weapons and gadgets they are still tough and will do anything and everything to stop secret agents. Tony Trihull (voiced by Lloyd Sherr) is a combat ship (modelled after USS Independence (LCS-2)) who works for Professor Zündapp. He first appears in the beginning when he notices Crabby and Finn in the oil reserve, ordering Crabby to leave. When Crabby refuses, Tony threatens him with a missile battery (based on the RIM-116 Rolling Airframe Missile). As a result, Crabby leaves but Finn hitches a ride on the back of Tony without him knowing. He later appears again near the end of the film in London when Professor Z tries to escape from being caught by Finn McMissile, yelling for the Professor to hurry and get aboard him. When Finn McMissile stops the Professor, Tony uses a magnetic device to pull the Professor towards him. McMissile shoots several mine-bombs out of his wheels which cling to Tony's big magnet, resulting in a huge explosion killing Tony. Victor Hugo (voiced by Stanley Townsend) is the head lemon of the Hugo family, being referred to as "the boss" by fellow Hugos. He and his Hugos work with Professor Zündapp. During the film, Victor uses Ivan, a blue tow truck (which Mater masquerades as to infiltrate the lemons' meeting), as his own personal transportation that tows him place to place instead of having to drive on his own. Hugo and the other main heads of the three lemon families (Gremlin, Pacer, Trunkov) attend a meeting with Professor Z in Porto Corsa. The car is based on Zastava Yugo. Alexander Hugo (voiced by Velibor Topic) is part of the Hugo family that works for Professor Z and Miles Axlerod. He is the only black bodyguard lemon in the entire movie to talk, making him and Victor the only Hugo family members that talk. Despite his young age, he does dirty work (like Victor and Ivan) and attends the lemon meeting. He also is one of the lemons attempting to round up Mater so that the bomb would explode, killing both Mater and Lightning. Near the end of the film, Alexander is arrested in London with his fellow lemons. Ivan (voiced by Stanley Townsend) is a blue tow truck who serves as Victor Hugo's mode of transportation, towing him around. He resembles Mater greatly, in fact, Mater disguises as Ivan in order to infiltrate a lemon crime meeting. The real Ivan was previously tazed by Holley. He later awoke and captured Holley and even intercepted Mater before he can warn Lightning McQueen about the truth of Allinol. In the end, he is defeated by Mater and arrested alongside the other lemons. His name is pronounced ee-van instead of eye-van. Thaddeus “Tubbs” Pacer (portrayed by Brad Lewis) is the head lemon of the Pacer family. He and his Pacers work with Professor Zündapp. During the film, Tubbs and the other main heads of the three lemon families (Gremlin, Trunkov, Hugo) attend a meeting with Professor Z in Porto Corsa to discuss their evil plans about discrediting the Allinol by using the radiation disguised camera to crash out the racers in the World Grand Prix that use the gas, and ensure that all cars keep using conventional fuel to secure the profits of their "lemon" organization who managed to secure the largest unexplored oil resources in the world. Tubbs is seen smiling at the idea and cannot wait. Petey Pacer is a blue AMC Pacer member of the lemon organization. He can be recognized as one of the cars equipped with flamethrowers who attack Finn McMissile on the oil rigs' helipad. Fred Pacer is a light yellow AMC Pacer. Vladimir Trunkov (voiced by Stanley Townsend) is the head lemon of the Trunkov family. He and his Trunkovs work with Professor Zündapp. During the film, Vladimir and the other main heads of the three lemon families (Gremlin, Pacer, Hugo) attend a meeting with Professor Z in Porto Corsa. He appears to be based on a ZAZ-968 Zaporozhets. Tolga is a black Trunkov that helps Vladimir Trunkov by protecting him, but it does not know who he is in the movie because there are several other black Trunkovs. Petrov Trunkov is a light green Trunkov. Jasper Curby Gremlin or J. Curby Gremlin for short (voiced by John Mainieri) is the head lemon of the Gremlin family. He originates from Detroit, as he states it when he introduces himself to the other lemons. He and his Gremlins work with Professor Zündapp. J. Curby, along with the other main heads of the three lemon families (Pacer, Trunkov, Hugo) attend a meeting with Professor Z in Porto Corsa. Later, In London, as he tries to kill them with a machine gun, he is sprayed by Red, and his fellow Lemons were arrested. Tyler Gremlin is a red/dark red AMC Gremlin. Francesco Bernoulli serves as Lightning McQueen's primary rival in the second film. He is a red Ferrari Formula 1 car with white and green decals, his number 1 on his front and sides and LED lights underneath his front wing for nighttime racing. His pit crew consists of a large number of race pitties and his crew chief, Giuseppe Motorosi. When driving, his engine sounds like a V8 Formula One engine. But unlike the F1 cars that were introduced during the 2011 Formula One season, Bernoulli doesn't have DRS. He is voiced by John Turturro in Cars 2 and Cars 2: The Video Game and by Carlos Alazraqui in Disney Infinity. Jeff Gorvette, a 2011 Chevrolet Corvette C6R, is a now-retired racer; he appeared in Cars 2 at the World Grand Prix; is Lightning McQueen's good friend; now an announcer for the Piston Cup races in Cars 3 along with his real-life broadcast partner; he is voiced by four-time NASCAR Cup Champion Jeff Gordon. During his time as a racer, his crew chief was John Lassetire. Like Jeff Gordon, Gorvette's race number is 24. Shu Todoroki is a Dome S102 and a Japanese racer. He has a crew chief named Mach Matsuo during his races and wears the number 7. Shu also has a red kai-ru dragon on his body and has won countless endurance championships, including Suzuka. He is voiced by Erik Passoja. Carla Veloso is a Peugeot Type 908 Le-Mans prototype from Rio de Janeiro and one of the fastest cars in the World Grand Prix. Her pit team includes her crew chief, Cruz Besouro. She is voiced by Claudia Leitte in the Brazilian version of the film and Jossara Jinaro for other roles. Her racing number is 8. Lewis Hamilton, a black McLaren MP4-12C GT3, is a racer that represents the United Kingdom and his home country, Grenada bearing the number 2. He has a crew chief named Bruce Boxmann and is good friends with Lightning McQueen and Jeff Gorvette. He is named after and voiced by the Formula 1 racing driver of the same name. Nigel Gearsley is a British Racing Green Aston Martin DBR9 who also represents the United Kingdom. He has won numerous races including Nürburgring and 24 Hours of Le Mans. He is voiced by Greg Ellis and has a crew chief named Austin Littletown. His racing number is 9. Raoul ÇaRoule is a French rally car who has won nine World Rally Championships before the events of Cars 2. He is modeled after a Citroën C4 WRC and is voiced by Jerome Dalton. Bruno Motoreau is his crew chief and his racing number is 6 (known as 06 in the film). Max Schnell is a champion of the World Torque Championship League (WtCL) racing with the number 4. He's a Mercedes-AMG W204 C-Class Racer (although there are no emblems) who represents Germany. He has a carbon fiber body with the stripes of his German flag on his roof. His crew chief is Otto Bonn which is a reference to the popular German Highway. In The German release of Cars 2, Max was known as Sebastian Schnell and was voiced by four-time F1 Champion, Sebastian Vettel. For other roles, Max is voiced by James Rankin. Miguel Camino is a GT racing champion from Spain. He is slightly modeled after a Lotus Elise GT1 with some elements of the Corvette. His voice actor is Antonio Banderas. Petro Cartalina is his crew chief. He was also the first racer to be struck by the lemon's electromagnetic pulse emitter forcing him to DNF the Tokyo race in the World Grand Prix. His racing number is 5. Rip Clutchgoneski is a Caparo T1 who represents a fictional country called The Republic of New Rearendia (A joke on "rear end"). His pit crew consists of two pitties and his crew chief, Brian Gearlookski. He has no voice actor. 10 is Rip's racing number. In foreign releases, the Corvette character voiced by Jeff Gordon is replaced by a different character. Daisu Tsashimi, played by Daisuke "Dice" Tsutsumi, is the name of the forklift sushi chef who serves Mater wasabi, when Mater mistook it for delicious pistachio ice cream. Tsashimi is a play on sashimi, and his given name could be a play on the Japanese auto marque Daihatsu, as well as his full name being a play on "diced sashimi". Mama Topolino (voiced by Vanessa Redgrave) is Luigi's aunt. She resembles a 1950 Renault (or maybe Alfa Romeo) Dauphine. Uncle Topolino (voiced by Franco Nero) is Luigi's uncle. He is a Fiat 500 "Topolino" from 1948 or earlier ("Topolino", which translates as "Little mouse", is Mickey Mouse's Italian name). The cover on his top resembles a hair style, similar to Luigi's. Queen Elizabeth II (voiced by Vanessa Redgrave) is a classic Rolls Royce Phantom car watching the race from Buckingham Palace. She knights Mater for his bravery in foiling Axlerod's plot. Her roof racks are made to look like a crown. Prince Wheeliam, the grandson of the Queen of the United Kingdom, is based on Prince William, Duke of Cambridge. He is a Bentley Continental GT and a fan of Britain's Lewis Hamilton and Nigel Gearsley. His name is a pun of "wheel" and "William". Celine Dephare is a car with eyes in her headlights. She is a reference to where the eyes of all the characters would originally be. Signora Bernoulli is Francesco's mother. She is seen at the Porto Corsa race cheering her son on. She is a 1960s era Ferrari 312 Formula One race car and, as evidenced by her number 01, his biggest fan other than himself. Mel Dorado (voiced by Patrick Walker) is the host of the "Mel Dorado Show" where he interviews Miles Axlerod and Francesco Bernoulli. Mater calls the show and eventually gets McQueen into the World Grand Prix. As his name indicates he is a Cadillac Eldorado. As evidenced by his glasses and smile, he is loosely based on Larry King. The Popemobile is only seen at the Italian World Grand Prix Race – he is seen inside a bulletproof "popemobile" for his personal protection. He is among the many fans in the stands. The Popemobile is referred to earlier in the film when Mater asks, "Is the Popemobile Catholic?" He has no lines in the film. Black-hatted priests can be seen next to the Popemobile while he sits in the stands at Porta Corsa for the second race in the World Grand Prix. Small Isetta forklifts, similar to the Guido character, are seen in white cassocks and red hats waving incense into the air. Topper Deckington III is a London double-decker bus. Brent Mustangburger, a 1965 Ford Mustang in traditional racing blue, is based on ESPN/ABC sportscaster Brent Musburger, who provides the character's voice.[77] He re-appears in the spin-off film Planes. David Hobbscap, a British racing green 1963 Jaguar Coombs Lightweight E-Type, is a former champion from 24 Heures du Mans turned television sportscaster.[78] His character is based on the real life former British racing driver and current NBC Sports commentator David Hobbs, who provides the character's voice. Jacques Villeneuve voices the character in the French and Quebec versions of Cars 2. He joins Brent Mustangburger and Darrell Cartrip. These are characters who have first or only appeared in the film Cars 3 (2017). Smokey, an older orange Hudson pickup truck, is Doc Hudson's old mechanic and crew chief who also helps McQueen, with his other participants (old timers River Scott, Louise Nash, and Junior Moon) at the abandoned Thomasville Speedway. He explains to McQueen that while Doc was devastated by no longer racing, he found greater happiness in training him. At the Florida 500, Smokey acts as McQueen's crew chief. He helps McQueen coach Cruz when she enters and race. Smokey is then seen at Willy's Butte for an exhibition race between McQueen and Cruz. He returned as a playable character in Cars 3: Driven to Win. He is voiced by Chris Cooper. The character is based on Daytona Beach garage owner Smokey Yunick, whose innovations were well known in motorsport, as he entered the No. 13 Chevelle for Johnny Rutherford that won the 1963 Daytona 500 qualifying race and also fielded a car in the 1964 Indianapolis 500 for Bobby Johns, but failed to qualify. Louise "Barnstormer" Nash, a white 1950 Nash Ambassador, is a retired Piston Cup racer from the 1950s and was one of the three legends to live in Thomasville with Smokey at the abandoned Thomasville Speedway. She has her number 94 in pink. She was known as the "First Lady of Racing" because having a female racer in the Piston Cup was an extreme rarity on the track. She won three races in a row in her first season against Doc Hudson. As one of the first and only females in racing at the time, it wasn't an easy road for Louise. She had to steal her racing number to get her first chance on the track. But Louise's fearless driving style soon won her the respect of every car she raced. Sassy and fun-loving, she still enjoys kicking off her hubcaps and racing at top speed. In Cars 3, Lightning McQueen meets Nash and several other Piston Cup legends (River Scott and Junior Moon) while visiting Smokey's Automotive Service during his recovery. She was present in the race, where Doc Hudson had his big crash at Fireball Beach. According to River, Louise had "serious eyes" for Doc, but she simply said Doc didn't like fast women and that left her out. She later appeared in the stands at the Florida International Speedway watching the FLORIDA 500 and was surprised when Cruz Ramirez flipped over Jackson Storm (the same manoeuver Doc Hudson did against Leroy Hemming in 1951), and getting the win. She was later seen in Radiator Springs with River, Smokey and Junior watching Lightning and Cruz doing an exhibition race at Willy's Butte. She returned in Cars 3: Driven to Win as a playable unlockable character. Louise Nash is voiced by Margo Martindale and was inspired by NASCAR driver Louise Smith. In Smith's first race, she used a Nash Ambassador, which is used for Louise's car model. River Scott, a grey and black 1938 Dirt Track Racer, is a Piston Cup Series racer from the 1950s where Lightning McQueen and Cruz Ramirez meet in Thomasville. His number was 34. River Scott came from modest beginnings, but he always made the very best of what he had. With seven circuit wins from the early 1950s, his unique body style made him a trailblazer in the Piston Cup. He was scrappy and improvisational, and wore his dents proudly as symbols of what he had been through. He was Doc's racing contemporary and friend, and loves to tell tales of the good old days. River Scott, as well as Smokey, Louise Nash and Junior Moon helped Lightning McQueen in his training to defeat Jackson Storm at the FLORIDA 500. He also watch the race in the grandstand with Louise and Junior and was impressed with Cruz flipping over Storm for the win. He also visited Radiator Springs to watch McQueen and Cruz doing an exhibition race. He also returned as a playable character in Cars 3: Driven to Win. River Scott is voiced by Isiah Whitlock Jr. and was inspired by the late NASCAR driver Wendell Scott. Junior "Midnight" Moon is a black 1940 Ford Standard Coupe and a retired Piston Cup racer from the 1950s. Long before official stock car tracks existed, souped-up jalopies raced for fun on wooded back roads with only the moon to light their way. That's where Junior Moon got his start and his name. Junior raced by his own rules. Hud and all the other early Piston Cup Competitors truly loved to race with him. In Cars 3, along with Smokey, Louise Nash and River Scott at Smokey's Automotive Service, he gives advice to Lightning McQueen during the latter's recovery. In the movie, "Midnight" explains to McQueen how he discovered how to draft in racing. He also appeared in flashbacks with Doc Hudson during Doc's racing days. During the flashback, he had the number 11 in white. He was seen surprised with Louise Nash and River Scott after seeing Cruz Ramirez flipping over Jackson Storm and cheered her on while she's getting ready to race Lightning McQueen in an exhibition race in Radiator Springs. Junior returned to Cars 3: Driven to Win as a playable unlockable character. Junior Moon was voiced and was inspired by legendary NASCAR driver, Junior Johnson. Leroy Heming is a white 1955 Chrysler 300 race car who raced against Doc Hudson during his time in racing. He was referred as the Rookie by Smokey when he made his debute in the 1951 Piston Cup season. During his rookie season, he tried to ram Doc Hudson into a wall, but Hudson flipped over him (the same maneuver Cruz did against Jackson Storm at the FLORIDA 500). Since then, they have became rivals until Hudson suffered a deadly rollover crash in '54 permanently ending his racing career. Leroy soon won the Piston Cup after Hudson's retirement. He formerly raced for Re-Volting, and Faraday Valley Dealers, with the number 300. He is from Orlando, Florida. His design is inspired by Tim Flock's 1955 car from NASCAR. Mike Joyride is a Citroën 2CV, voiced by Fox NASCAR lead commentator Mike Joy. He announces the unconfirmed status of McQueen's racing career after his crash and assumes the end of his racing days. Miss Fritter is a villainous demolition derby-inspired monster ICU school bus Type C with various license plates hanging down her left side, smoke stacks of doom that release fire and her race number 58 on her sides. She is Lightning McQueen's nemesis turned friend, an undefeated Crazy-8 champion in the movie. She appears at a demolition derby at Thunder Hollow Speedway. She nearly saws Cruz with her Stop sign saw blades until Lightning McQueen, disguised as Chester Whipplefilter stops her only to get his tire shredded because the saw was lodged between his rear fender and tire. Cruz Ramirez ends up winning the race. Miss Fritter is then seen cheering for McQueen and Cruz, watching the Florida 500 on TV. Then she appeared in a Cars 3 short film "Miss Fritter's Racing Skoool" shooting a commercial for demolition derby racing along with her friends from Thunder Hollow. She returned in "Cars 3: Driven to Win" as an unlockable playable character and the first Master Event Boss Character. She is unlocked by completing and defeating her in the Master-level event, Miss Fritter Battle Race. She also chased Jackson Storm, an arrogent Next-Gen Piston Cup racer determined to beat anyone anywhere, at Thunder Hollow after the player beats him to the finish in the master-level event, Jackson Storm Race. She is voiced by Lea Delaria.[79] Besides Lightning McQueen, Cruz Ramirez and Miss Fritter, here are other demolition derby racers that race against them at Thunder Hollow Speedway. Sweet Tea is a forklift and Louise Nash's former pitty, voiced by American singer and songwriter Andra Day. Sweet Tea knows all about fighting hard to prove that women deserve their fair shake in the racing world. When Louise retired, she discovered she had a singing voice as smooth as freshly laid asphalt. She now spends her time belting out country classics at the Cotter Pin. In Australia and New Zealand, Rochelle is re-contextualized as a former Tasmanian mail delivery plane, and is voiced by Jessica Marais.[87] For other international release of Planes, Rochelle was named and painted differently. She was known as "Carolina" for the Brazilian version (voiced by Ivete Sangalo), "Tanya" in the Russian version, "Heidi" in the German version, "Azzurra" in the Italian version (voiced by Micaela Ramazzotti), "Sakura" in the Japanese version (voiced by Naka Riisa), and "Yún Yàn Fēi" in the Chinese/Putonghua version (voiced by Yù Tóu). Theres also a French version of Rochelle in the France version of Disney Planes. She may look similar to the Canadian Rochelle because of her paintwork and the French language she speaks. But the French Rochelle does not have the red maple leaf decals on her body. • Secord (#4) • Fonzerelli (#8) • Tysonitis (#9) • Pack Rat (#10) • Piston (#12) • Gordon (#15) • Firebird (#16) • Hammer (#17) • Jackson Riles (#18) • Maddox (#23) Mr. Windshield was a character which was scrapped from the storyline around 2003. Based on concept art, he was going to be a yellow Packard Clipper, although a 2000 concept sketch by Dave Deal shows him as a Packard Super Eight rather than a Clipper. As his name implies, he was going to be an optometrist/windshield salesman, and while the character was scrapped, his shop still made it into the final film. The design was reused for Ramone's House of Body Art. These three Piston Cup racers were planned to be in the film racing in the Dinoco 400 at the Motor Speedway of the South but there was no racer featured even if their numbers made a camo appearance in the Cars film or the Video Game via the leaderboard tower. Currently the number 3 is driven by Austin Dillon with Richerd Childress Racing and the 9 is used by Hendrick Motorsports's Chase Elliott in the NASCAR Cup Series. The number 113 is a Pixar gag to the call sign A113 which featured by almost every Disney-Pixar film. Zil was originally going to be the main antagonist in Cars 2, but was ultimately dropped in favour of Professor Z and Miles Axlerod. His design was based on the 1958 ZIL-111, but with one adjustment: the ZIL logo is on his front bumper. Giulia was an original character in the beginnings of Cars 2. She was intended to be the double agent that met up with Mater. Giulia was left out of the completed movie, and replaced by Holley Shiftwell. She is modelled as an Alfa Romeo, resembling an Alfa Romeo Giulia Spider.

Rita Maiburg

Rita Maiburg (23 June 1952 - 9 September 1977) was a German airline pilot.[1] She was the world's first female captain of a commercial passenger airliner.[2] Maiburg, born in Bonn in 1952,[1] was the oldest of four children of architects Alois and Gertrud Maiburg. She attended primary and high school in Bonn, graduating in 1968. She began learning to fly in 1967 and two years later earnt her private pilot license at the Luftfahrerschule North-Rhine Westphalia in Bonn-Hangelar.[3] She took a job at the Federal Institute for Air Traffic Control in Bonn and applied to the German airline Lufthansa for a position in the airline's pilot training programme. The airline declined her application as it did not hire women as pilots. In 1974 Maiburg filed civil suits against both the airline and the state (as majority shareholder of the airline), claiming this was unfair discrimination.[4] She lost both suits. She was hired, though, by a smaller regional airline, Deutsche Luftverkehrsgesellschaft (DLT), as a co-pilot.[2][5] Shortly after she was promoted to captain and became the first female captain of a commercial passenger airliner.[2] In 1977 Maiburg was involved in a car accident and died of her injuries. She was 25 years old.[2] A street on a former airfield in Cologne, Germany, is named after her.[6] In 2015, Georg von Toyberg Publishers published a biography of Maiburg written by Eva Maria Bader.[7]

Ernst Loof

Ernst Loof (4 July 1907 in Neindorf near Oschersleben – 3 March 1956 in Bonn) was an automotive engineer and racing driver from Germany. He contributed to the design of the BMW 328 sports car in the late 1930s.[1] Loof participated in one Formula One World Championship Grand Prix, the German Grand Prix held on 2 August 1953. He retired with fuel pump failure after two metres of racing and scored no championship points. Having only making it six feet off the starting grid, Loof holds the undesirable record for the driver with the shortest Formula One career, a record often falsely attributed to Marco Apicella.[citation needed] Loof was also a famous motorcycle racer and designer, who scored numerous successes in pre-war years for Imperia of Bad Godesberg and for BMW. He later became one of the founders of the Veritas company, successful in Formula Two with the Meteor racer in the immediate post-war period. The company also built sports cars, mostly BMW-engined, as well as the Panhard-engined Dyna-Veritas cabriolets. Loof was the head designer of the Veritas car he drove in this race. The company had already gone bankrupt by this time, and its assets were purchased by BMW. He was hired by BMW in styling and body engineering and worked there until he retired due to illness. Loof died in 1956 of a brain tumour.[2] (key)

West Germany

West Germany is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, BRD; listen), retrospectively designated the Bonn Republic,[3] in the period between its formation on 23 May 1949 and German reunification on 3 October 1990. During this Cold War period, the western portion of Germany was part of the Western Bloc. The FRG was created during the Allied occupation of Germany after World War II, established from eleven states formed in the three Allied zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Its provisional capital was the city of Bonn. At the onset of the Cold War, Europe was divided between the Western and Eastern blocs. Germany was de facto divided into two countries and two special territories, the Saarland and a divided Berlin. Initially, the FRG claimed an exclusive mandate for all of Germany, identifying as the sole democratically reorganised continuation of the 1871–1945 German Reich. It took the line that the German Democratic Republic (GDR), commonly referred to as East Germany, was an illegally constituted puppet state controlled by the Soviet Union. Although the GDR did hold regular elections, these were neither free nor fair, and West Germany considered them illegitimate. Three southwestern states of West Germany merged to form Baden-Württemberg in 1952, and the Saarland joined the FRG in 1957. In addition to the resulting ten states, West Berlin was considered an unofficial de facto eleventh state. While legally not part of the FRG, as Berlin was under the control of the Allied Control Council, West Berlin politically aligned with West Germany and was directly or indirectly represented in its federal institutions. The foundation for the influential position held by Germany today was laid during the economic miracle of the 1950s (Wirtschaftswunder), when West Germany rose from the enormous destruction wrought by World War II to become the world's third-largest economy. The first chancellor Konrad Adenauer, who remained in office until 1963, worked for a full alignment with NATO rather than neutrality, and secured membership in the military alliance. Adenauer was also a proponent of agreements that developed into the present-day European Union. When the G6 was established in 1975, there was no serious debate as to whether West Germany would become a member. Following the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, both territories took action to achieve German reunification. East Germany voted to dissolve and accede to the FRG in 1990. Its five post-war states (Länder) were reconstituted, along with the reunited Berlin, which ended its special status and formed an additional Land. They formally joined the FRG on 3 October 1990, raising the total number of states from ten to sixteen, and ending the division of Germany. The reunited Germany is considered the successor of West Germany and not a new state, as the process was essentially a voluntary act of accession: West Germany was enlarged to include the additional states of East Germany, which had ceased to exist. The expanded FRG retained West Germany's political culture and continued its existing memberships in international organisations, as well as its Western foreign policy alignment and affiliation to Western alliances such as the United Nations, NATO, OECD, and the European Economic Community. The official name of West Germany, adopted in 1949 and unchanged since, is Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of Germany). In East Germany, the terms Westdeutschland (West Germany) or westdeutsche Bundesrepublik (West German Federal Republic) were preferred during the 1950s and 1960s. This changed under its 1968 constitution, when the idea of a single German nation was abandoned by East Germany. As a result, it officially considered West Germans and West Berliners as foreigners. The initialism BRD (FRG in English) began to prevail in East German usage in the early 1970s, beginning in the newspaper Neues Deutschland. Other Eastern Bloc nations soon followed suit. In 1965 the West German Federal Minister of All-German Affairs Erich Mende had issued the "Directives for the Appellation of Germany", recommending avoiding the initialism BRD. On 31 May 1974, the heads of West German federal and state governments recommended always using the full name in official publications. From then on, West German sources avoided the abbreviated form, with the exception of left-leaning organizations which embraced it. In November 1979 the federal government informed the Bundestag that the West German public broadcasters ARD and ZDF had agreed to refuse to use the initialism.[4] The ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code of West Germany was DE (for Deutschland, Germany), which has remained the country code of Germany after reunification. ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 codes are the most widely used country codes, and the DE code is notably used as a country identifier, extending the postal code and as the Internet's country code top-level domain .de. The less widely used ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 country code of West Germany was DEU, which has remained the country code of reunified Germany. The now deleted codes for East Germany, on the other hand, were DD in ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 and DDR in ISO 3166-1 alpha-3. The colloquial term West Germany or its equivalent was used in many languages. Westdeutschland was also a widespread colloquial form used in German-speaking countries, usually without political overtones. On 4–11 February 1945 leaders from the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union held the Yalta Conference where future arrangements regarding post-war Europe and Allied strategy against Japan in the Pacific were negotiated. Throughout the 1930s, Nazi Germany had followed a policy of reclaiming German lands lost in the Versailles Treaty, and of reuniting other territories occupied by German peoples within the German Reich, so the Allies agreed that the boundaries of Germany as at 31 December 1937 would be chosen as demarcating German national territory from German occupied territory; all German annexations after 1937 were automatically null. Subsequently, and into the 1970s, the West German state was to maintain that these 1937 boundaries continued to be 'valid in international law'; although the Allies had already agreed amongst themselves that East Prussia and Silesia must be transferred to Poland and the Soviet Union in any Peace agreement. The conference agreed that post-war Germany, minus these transfers, would be divided into four occupation zones: a French Zone in the far west; a British Zone in the northwest; an American Zone in the south; and a Soviet Zone in the East. Berlin was separately divided into four zones. These divisions were not intended to dismember Germany, only to designate zones of administration. By the subsequent Potsdam Agreement, the four Allied Powers asserted joint sovereignty over "Germany as a whole", defined as the totality of the territory within the occupation zones. Former German areas east of the rivers Oder and Neisse and outside of 'Germany as a whole' were separated from German sovereignty in July 1945 and transferred from Soviet military occupation to Polish and Soviet (in the case of the territory of Kaliningrad) civil administration, their Polish and Soviet status to be confirmed at a final Peace Treaty. Following wartime commitments by the Allies to the governments-in-exile of Czechoslovakia and Poland, the Potsdam Protocols also agreed to the 'orderly and humane' transfer to Germany as a whole of the ethnic German populations in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. Eight million German expellees and refugees eventually settled in West Germany. Between 1946 and 1949, three of the occupation zones began to merge. First, the British and American zones were combined into the quasi-state of Bizonia. Soon afterwards, the French zone was included into Trizonia. Conversely, the Russian zone became East Germany. At the same time, new federal states (Länder) were formed in the Allied zones; replacing the geography of pre-Nazi German states such as the Free State of Prussia and the Republic of Baden, which had derived ultimately from former independent German kingdoms and principalities. In the dominant post-war narrative of West Germany, the Nazi regime was characterised as having been a 'criminal' state,[5] illegal and illegitimate from the outset; while the Weimar Republic was characterised as having been a 'failed' state,[6] whose inherent institutional and constitutional flaws had been exploited by Hitler in his illegal seizure of dictatorial powers. Consequently, following the death of Hitler in 1945 and the subsequent capitulation of the German Armed Forces, the national political, judicial, administrative, and constitutional instruments of both Nazi Germany and the Weimar Republic were understood as entirely defunct, such that a new West Germany could be established in a condition of constitutional nullity.[7] Nevertheless, the new West Germany asserted its fundamental continuity with the 'overall' German state that was held to have embodied the unified German people since the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848, and which from 1871 had been represented within the German Reich; albeit that this overall state had become effectively dormant long before 8 May 1945. In 1949 with the continuation and aggravation of the Cold War (witness the Berlin Airlift of 1948–49), the two German states that were originated in the Western Allied and the Soviet Zones became known internationally as West Germany and East Germany. Commonly known in English as East Germany, the former Soviet Occupation Zone, eventually became the German Democratic Republic or GDR. In 1990 West Germany and East Germany jointly signed the Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany (also known as the "Two-plus-Four Agreement"); by which transitional status of Germany following World War II was definitively ended and the Four Allied powers relinquished their joint residual sovereign authority for Germany as a whole including the area of West Berlin which had officially remained under Allied occupation for the purposes of international and GDR law (a status that the Western countries applied to Berlin as a whole despite the Soviets declaring the end of occupation of East Berlin unilaterally many decades before). The Two-plus-Four Agreement also saw the two parts of Germany confirm their post-war external boundaries as final and irreversible (including the 1945 transfer of former German lands east of the Oder-Neisse line), and the Allied Powers confirmed their consent to German Reunification. From 3 October 1990, after the reformation of the GDR's Länder, the East German states joined the Federal Republic. With territories and frontiers that coincided largely with the ones of old Medieval East Francia and the 19th-century Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine, the Federal Republic of Germany, founded on 23 May 1949, under the terms of the Bonn–Paris conventions it obtained "the full authority of a sovereign state" on 5 May 1955 (although "full sovereignty" was not obtained until the Two Plus Four Agreement in 1990).[a] The former occupying Western troops remained on the ground, now as part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which West Germany joined on 9 May 1955, promising to rearm itself soon.[9] West Germany became a focus of the Cold War with its juxtaposition to East Germany, a member of the subsequently founded Warsaw Pact. The former capital, Berlin, had been divided into four sectors, with the Western Allies joining their sectors to form West Berlin, while the Soviets held East Berlin. West Berlin was completely surrounded by East German territory and had suffered a Soviet blockade in 1948–49, which was overcome by the Berlin airlift. The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 led to U.S. calls to rearm West Germany to help defend Western Europe from the perceived Soviet threat. Germany's partners in the Coal and Steel Community proposed to establish a European Defence Community (EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces. Though the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French Gaullists and communists had killed the French government's proposal. Then other means had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, at the London and Paris Conferences, the Brussels Treaty was modified to include West Germany, and to form the Western European Union (WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm (an idea many Germans rejected), and have full sovereign control of its military, called the Bundeswehr. The WEU, however, would regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Also, the German constitution prohibited any military action, except in the case of an external attack against Germany or its allies (Bündnisfall). Also, Germans could reject military service on grounds of conscience, and serve for civil purposes instead.[10] The three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements. With the exception of 55,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.) Konrad Adenauer was 73 years old when he became chancellor in 1949, and for this reason he was initially reckoned as a caretaker. However, he stayed in power for 14 years. The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in 1963.[11] In October 1962 the weekly news magazine Der Spiegel published an analysis of the West German military defence. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of Der Spiegel in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the Bundestag that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor/owner of the magazine, Rudolf Augstein spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of Franz Josef Strauss, Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis. Adenauer was still wounded by his brief run for president, and this episode damaged his reputation even further. He announced that he would step down in the fall of 1963. His successor was to be Ludwig Erhard.[12] In the early 1960s the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962 growth rate was 4.7% and the following year, 2.0%. After a brief recovery, the growth rate slowed again into a recession, with no growth in 1967. A new coalition was formed to deal with this problem. Erhard stepped down in 1966 and was succeeded by Kurt Georg Kiesinger. He led a grand coalition between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts: the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency. During the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the Free Democratic Party, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself Notstand der Demokratie ("Democracy in Crisis") and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967, when the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the Shah (later known as Jubelperser), armed with staves and bricks attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the centre was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head and killed by a plainclothes policeman. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German security forces.) Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the tabloid Bild-Zeitung newspaper, as a massive disruption to life in Berlin, in a massive campaign against the protesters. Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigour with which demonstrations were repressed led to mounting militance among the students at the universities in Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East Germany called Rudi Dutschke who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken.[13] In the wakes of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of the parent-generation in the Nazi era. The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but until a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. One courageous attorney, Fritz Bauer patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the Auschwitz concentration camp and about twenty were put on trial in Frankfurt in 1963. Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the Shoah was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term "Holocaust" for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in 1979, when a 1978 American mini-series with that name was shown on West German television.) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later. The calling in question of the actions and policies of government led to a new climate of debate. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979 the environmental party, the Greens, reached the 5% limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1977 a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account.[14] Further reforms in 1979 to parental rights law gave equal legal rights to the mother and the father, abolishing the legal authority of the father.[15] Parallel to this, a gay movement began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic. Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims led to growing militance among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to two department stores in Frankfurt; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the "struggle against imperialism".[16] The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form—the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalising the industrial workers and taking an example from activities in Italy of the Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse), many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success. The most notorious of the underground groups was the Red Army Faction which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name "RAF". The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback.[17] In the 1969 election, the SPD—headed by Willy Brandt—gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP.[18] Although Chancellor for only just over four years, Willy Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality. Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany's eastern neighbours, a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries. (Moscow Agreement, August 1970, Warsaw Agreement, December 1970, Four Power Agreement over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an agreement on relations between West and East Germany, signed in December 1972.)[19] These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long-term to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union's control over Eastern Europe. Chancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after Günter Guillaume, a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the Stasi. Brandt's contributions to world peace led to his nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971. Although Brandt is perhaps best known for his achievements in foreign policy, his government oversaw the implementation of a broad range of social reforms, and was known as a "Kanzler der inneren Reformen" ('Chancellor of domestic reform').[20] According to the historian David Childs, "Brandt was anxious that his government should be a reforming administration and a number of reforms were embarked upon".[21] Within a few years, the education budget rose from 16 billion to 50 billion DM, while one out of every three DM spent by the new government was devoted to welfare purposes. As noted by the journalist and historian Marion Dönhoff, "People were seized by a completely new feeling about life. A mania for large scale reforms spread like wildfire, affecting schools, universities, the administration, family legislation. In the autumn of 1970 Jürgen Wischnewski of the SPD declared, 'Every week more than three plans for reform come up for decision in cabinet and in the Assembly.'"[22] According to Helmut Schmidt, Willy Brandt's domestic reform programme had accomplished more than any previous programme for a comparable period.[23] Levels of social expenditure were increased,[24] with more funds allocated towards housing, transportation, schools, and communication,[25] and substantial federal benefits were provided for farmers.[26] Various measures were introduced to extend health care coverage,[27] while federal aid to sports organisations was increased.[26] A number of liberal social reforms were instituted[28] whilst the welfare state was significantly expanded[29] (with total public spending on social programs nearly doubling between 1969 and 1975),[30] with health, housing, and social welfare legislation bringing about welcome improvements,[26] and by the end of the Brandt Chancellorship West Germany had one of the most advanced systems of welfare in the world.[20] Substantial increases were made in social security benefits such as injury and sickness benefits,[20] pensions,[31] unemployment benefits,[20][32] housing allowances,[33] basic subsistence aid allowances,[34] and family allowances and living allowances.[35] In the government's first budget, sickness benefits were increased by 9.3%, pensions for war widows by 25%, pensions for the war wounded by 16%, and retirement pensions by 5%.[25] Numerically, pensions went up by 6.4% (1970), 5.5% (1971), 9.5% (1972), 11.4% (1973), and 11.2% (1974). Adjusted for changes in the annual price index, pensions went up in real terms by 3.1% (1970), 0.3% (1971), 3.9% (1972), 4.4% (1973), and 4.2% (1974).[36] Between 1972 and 1974, the purchasing power of pensioners went up by 19%.[37] In 1970, war pensions were increased by 16%.[38] War victim's pensions went up by 5.5% in January 1971, and by 6.3% in January 1972. By 1972, war pensions for orphans and parents had gone up by around 40%, and for widows by around 50%. Between 1970 and 1972, the "Landabgaberente" (land transfer pension) went up by 55%.[39] Between 1969 and 1974, the average real standard rate of income support rose (in 1991 prices) from around 300 DM to around 400 DM.[40] Between 1970 and 1974, unemployment benefits rose from around 300 euros to around 400 euros per month, and unemployment assistance from just under 200 euros per month to just under 400 euros per month.[41] In 2001 prices, the average standard social assistance benefit level rose from around 200 euros per month in 1969 to over 250 euros per month in 1974.[42] During most of Brandt's years as chancellor, the majority of benefits increased as a percentage of average net earnings.[33] In 1970, seagoing pilots became retrospectively insurable, and gained full social security as members of the Non-Manual Workers Insurance Institute. That same year, a special regulation came into force for District Master Chimney Sweeps, making them fully insurable under the Craftsman's Insurance Scheme.[38] An increase was made in tax-free allowances for children, which enabled 1,000,000 families to claim an allowance for the second child, compared to 300,000 families previously.[25] The Second Modification and Supplementation Law (1970) increased the allowance for the third child from DM 50 to DM 60, raised the income-limit for the second child allowance from DM 7,800 to DM 13,200; subsequently increased to DM 15,000 by the third modification law (December 1971), DM 16,800 by the fourth modification law (November 1973), and to DM 18,360 by the fifth modification law (December 1973).[33] A flexible retirement age after 62 years was introduced (1972) for invalids and handicapped persons,[43] and social assistance was extended to those who previously had to be helped by their relatives.[28] From 1971, special subventions were provided to enable young farmers to quit farming "and facilitate their entry into the non-agricultural pension system by means of back payments".[44] The Third Modification Law (1974) extended individual entitlements to social assistance by means of higher-income limits compatible with receipt of benefits and lowered age limits for certain special benefits. Rehabilitation measures were also extended, child supplements were expressed as percentages of standard amounts and were thus indexed to their changes, and grandparents of recipients were exempted from potential liability to reimburse expenditure of social assistance carrier.[33] The Third Social Welfare Amendment Act (1974) brought considerable improvements for the handicapped, those in need of care, and older persons,[45] and a new fund of 100 million marks for disabled children was established.[25] Allowances for retraining and advanced training and for refugees from East Germany were also increased,[25] together with federal grants for sport.[25] In addition, increases were made in the pensions of 2.5 million war victims.[22] Following a sudden increase in the price of oil, a law was passed in December 1973 granting recipients of social assistance and housing allowances a single heating-oil allowance (a procedure repeated in the winter of 1979 during the Schmidt Administration).[46] Improvements and automatic adjustments of maintenance allowances for participants in vocational training measures were also carried out,[39] and increased allowances were provided for training and retraining, together with special allowances for refugees from East Germany.[47] There was determined, by statutory regulation issued in February 1970, the category of persons most seriously disabled "to whom, with regard to maintenance aid, an increased demand (50% of the appropriate rate) is being conceded, and, within the scope of relief in special living conditions: a higher rate of nursing aid".[48] In 1971, the retirement age for miners was lowered to 50.[49] An April 1972 law providing for "promotion of social aid services" aimed to remedy, through various beneficial measures (particularly in the field of national insurance and working conditions), the staff-shortage suffered by social establishments in their medico-social, educational and other work. A bill to harmonize re-education benefit and another bill relating to severely handicapped persons became law in May and September 1972 respectively.[43] In 1972, winter payments for construction workers were introduced.[50][51][52] To assist family planning and marriage and family guidance, the government allocated DM 2 232 000 in 1973 for the payment and for the basic and further training of staff. A special effort was also made in 1973 to organize the recreation of handicapped persons, with a holiday guide for the handicapped issued with the aid of the Federal Ministry of Family and Youth Affairs and Health in order to help them find suitable holiday accommodation for themselves and their families. From 1972 to 1973, the total amount of individual aids granted by Guarantee Fund for the integration of young immigrants increased from 17 million DM to 26 million DM.[53] Under a law passed in April 1974, the protection hitherto granted to the victims of war or industrial accidents for the purpose of their occupational and social reintegration was extended to all handicapped persons, whatever the cause of their handicap, provided that their capacity to work had been reduced by at least 50%.[54] A law on explosives (Sprengstoffgesetz) was the subject of two application ordinances (on 17 November 1970 and 24 August 1971) and a general regulatory provision (19 May 1971), which covered respectively the application of the law to nationals of EC Member States, the duty of employers to notify in time the inspection authorities of detonation plans, the interpretation of the purpose and field of application of the law, authorizations for transport of explosives, and control and recognition of training courses on work with explosives.[55] Taking into account the enormous high peaks of air traffic noise and its concentration at a limited number of airports, the Law for Protection against Aircraft Noise of 1971 sought to balance two conflicting demands, the first being the legitimate demand by industry, business and the public for an efficient air-traffic-system, and secondly, the understandable and by no means less legitimate claims of the affected people for protection and compensation. The legislation regulated the establishment of so-called "Lärmschutzzonen" (protection areas against aircraft noise) for all 11 international airports and for those 34 military airports used for jet air craft, and the law also authorised the Federal Department of the Interior to decree protection areas for each of those mentioned airports with approval by the "Bundesrat", the representation of the German Federal States.[56] In the field of health care, various measures were introduced to improve the quality and availability of health care provision. Free hospital care was introduced for 9 million recipients of social relief,[22] while a contributory medical service for 23 million panel patients was introduced.[22] Pensioners were exempted from paying a 2% health insurance contribution,[25] while improvements in health insurance provision were carried out,[20] as characterised by an expanded sickness insurance scheme, with the inclusion of preventative treatment.[33] The income limit for compulsory sickness insurance was indexed to changes in the wage level (1970)[33] and the right to medical cancer screening for 23.5 million people was introduced.[57] In January 1971, the reduction of sickness allowance in case of hospitalisation was discontinued.[55] That same year, compulsory health insurance was extended to the self-employed.[58] In 1970, the government included nonmedical psychotherapists and psychoanalysts in the national health insurance program.[59] Pupils, students and children in kindergartens were incorporated into the accident insurance scheme,[33] which benefited 11 million children.[22] Free medical checkups were introduced that same year,[60] while the Farmers' Sickness Insurance Law (1972) introduced compulsory sickness insurance for independent farmers, family workers in agriculture, and pensioners under the farmers' pension scheme, medical benefits for all covered groups, and cash benefits for family workers under compulsory coverage for pension insurance.[33] Participation in employer's health insurance was extended to four million employees.[57] A Development Law of December 1970 made it possible for all employees voluntarily to become members of the statutory sickness insurance. The level of income for compulsory sickness insurance was indexed to 75% of the respective assessment level for pension insurance, while voluntarily insured employees were granted a claim to an allowance towards their sickness insurance from their employer. This law also introduced a new type of sickness insurance benefit, namely facilities for the early diagnosis of disease. Apart from the discretionary service of disease prevention which had existed since 1923, insured persons now had a right in certain circumstances to medical examinations aimed at the early diagnosis of disease. According to one study, this marked a change in the concept of sickness insurance: it now aimed at securing good health.[46] The Hospital Financing Law (1972) secured the supply of hospitals and reduced the cost of hospital care, "defined the financing of hospital investment as a public responsibility, single states to issue plans for hospital development, and the federal government to bear the cost of hospital investment covered in the plans, rates for hospital care thus based on running costs alone, hospitals to ensure that public subsidies together with insurance fund payments for patients cover total costs".[33] The Benefit Improvement Law (1973) made entitlement to hospital care legally binding (entitlements already enjoyed in practice), abolished time limits for hospital care, introduced entitlement to household assistance under specific conditions, and also introduced entitlement to leave of absence from work and cash benefits in the event of a child's illness.[33] In 1971, to encourage the growth of registered family holiday centres, the Federal Government granted subsidies for the building and appointing of 28 of these centres at a total cost of 8 million DM.[55] Free preliminary investigations were introduced for 2.5 million children up until the age of 4 for the early detection and correction of developmental disorders, and health research was expanded. Federal grants were increased, especially for the Cancer Research Centre in Heidelberg, while a Federal Institute for Sport Science was set up, together with the Institute for Social Medicine and Epidemiology in Berlin. In addition, funding for new rehabilitation facilities was increased.[39] The Pension Reform Law (1972) guaranteed all retirees a minimum pension regardless of their contributions[61] and institutionalized the norm that the standard pension (of average earners with forty years of contributions) should not fall below 50% of current gross earnings.[33] The 1972 pension reforms improved eligibility conditions and benefits for nearly every subgroup of the West German population.[62] The income replacement rate for employees who made full contributions was raised to 70% of average earnings. The reform also replaced 65 as the mandatory retirement age with a "retirement window" ranging between 63 and 65 for employees who had worked for at least thirty-five years. Employees who qualified as disabled and had worked for at least thirty-five years were extended a more generous retirement window, which ranged between the ages of 60 and 62. Women who had worked for at least fifteen years (ten of which had to be after the age of age 40) and the long-term unemployed were also granted the same retirement window as the disabled. In addition, there were no benefit reductions for employees who had decided to retire earlier than the age of 65.[63] The legislation also changed the way in which pensions were calculated for low-income earners who had been covered for twenty-five or more years. If the pension benefit fell below a specified level, then such workers were allowed to substitute a wage figure of 75% of the average wage during this period, thus creating something like a minimum wage benefit.[64] According to one study, the 1972 pension reform "enhanced" the reduction of poverty in old age.[65] Voluntary retirement at 63 with no deductions in the level of benefits was introduced,[62] together with the index-linking of war victim's pensions to wage increases.[20] Guaranteed minimum pension benefits for all West Germans were introduced,[30] along with automatic pension increases for war widows (1970).[60] Fixed minimum rates for women in receipt of very low pensions were also introduced, together with equal treatment for war widows.[66] Improvements in pension provision were made for women and the self-employed,[67] a new minimum pension for workers with at least twenty-five years' insurance was introduced,[34] faster pension indexation was implemented, with the annual adjustment of pensions brought forward by six months,[68] and the Seventh Modification Law (1973) linked the indexation of farmers' pensions to the indexation of the general pension insurance scheme.[33] A new pension for "severely handicapped" persons was introduced in 1972,[69] along with occupational injury annuities[70] and a special pension for long-standing insurant from the age of 63 and a pension due to "limited earning capacity" from the age of 62.[71] In addition, a special pension benefit was introduced for workers aged 60 and above after unemployment.[72] Under the Severely Handicapped Persons Act of April 1974, a seriously disabled person could retire early on an old age pension at the age of 62 years, provided that he "complied with the other provisions of the legislation on pension insurance".[54] In education, the Brandt Administration sought to widen educational opportunities for all West Germans. The government presided over an increase in the number of teachers,[22] generous public stipends were introduced for students to cover their living costs,[28] and West German universities were converted from elite schools into mass institutions.[28] The school leaving age was raised to 16,[73] and spending on research and education was increased by nearly 300% between 1970 and 1974.[73] Working through a planning committee set up for the "joint task" of university development, the Federal Government started to make investment costs in 1971.[74] Fees for higher or further education were abolished,[20] while a considerable increase in the number of higher education institutions took place.[20] A much needed school and college construction program was carried out,[20] together with the introduction of postgraduate support for highly qualified graduates, providing them with the opportunity to earn their doctorates or undertake research studies.[75] A law on individual promotion of vocational training came into force in October 1971, which provided for financial grants for attendance at further general or technical teaching establishments from the second year of studies at higher technical schools, academies and higher education establishments, training centres of second degree, or certain courses of television teaching. Grants were also made in certain cases for attendance at training centres located outside the Federal Republic.[55] The education budget was doubled from 3% to 6%, while an expansion of secondary education took place. The number of university students went up from 100,000 to 650,000, 30,000 more places were created in the schools, and an additional 1,000 million marks was allocated for new school buildings. In addition, the provision of scholarships was expanded, with the 1970 programme providing for, in the words of one observer, "5,000 new scholarships for graduates, and double that number were being awarded three years later".[47] Grants were introduced for pupils from lower income groups to stay on at school, together with grants for those going into any kind of higher or further education.[75][76] Increases were also made in educational allowances,[33] as well as spending on science.[35] In 1972, the government allocated 2.1 million DM in grants to promote marriage and family education.[43] Under the Approbationsordnung (medical education profession act) of 1970, the subject of psychosomatic medicine and psychotherapy at German universities became a compulsory subject for medical students,[77] and that same year education of clinical and biomedical engineers was introduced.[78] The Brandt Administration also introduced enabling legislation for the introduction of comprehensives, but left it to the Lander "to introduce them at their discretion". While the more left-wing Lander "rapidly began to do so", other Lander found "all sorts of pretexts for delaying the scheme". By the mid-1980s, Berlin had 25 comprehensives while Bavaria only had 1, and in most Lander comprehensives were still viewed as "merely experimental".[79] In the field of housing, various measures were carried out to benefit householders, such as in improving the rights of tenants and increasing rental assistance. According to the Rent Subsidies Act (Wohngeldgesetz) of 1970, "low-income tenants and owners of accommodations are supported with rents and burdens subsidies".[80] The determination of the income of families taken into consideration for housing allowances was simplified,[81] and increased levels of protection and support for low-income tenants and householders were introduced[20] which led to a drop in the number of eviction notices. By 1974, three times as much was paid out in rent subsidies as in 1969, and nearly one and a half million households received rental assistance.[45] Increases were made in public housing subsidies,[82] as characterised by a 36% increase in the social housing budget in 1970[25] and by the introduction of a programme for the construction of 200,000 public housing units (1971).[83] From 1970 to 1971, an 18.1% increase in building permits for social housing units was made.[84] Other reforms aimed at improving tenants' rights included protection against conversion of rental housing into condominiums, the prohibition of the misappropriation of living space, new regulation of the apartment broker system, and a fee scale for engineers and architects. In addition, the income limits for eligibility for social housing were raised and adapted in order of general income trends.[39] A loose form of rent regulation was introduced under the name of "Vergleichmieten" ('comparable rents'),[85] together with the provision of "for family-friendly housing" freight or rent subsidies to owners of apartments or houses whose ceiling had been adapted to increased expenses or incomes (1970).[86] In addition, a law for the creation of property for workers was passed, under which a married worker would normally keep up to 95% of his pay, and graded tax remission for married wage-earners applied up to a wage of 48,000 marks, which indicated the economic prosperity of West Germany at that time.[25] The Town Planning Act (1971) encouraged the preservation of historical heritage and helped open up the way to the future of many German cities,[66] while the Urban Renewal Act (1971) helped the states to restore their inner cities and to develop new neighbourhoods.[87] In addition, Guidelines of December 1972 on the usage of federal funds in assisting social housing construction laid down that a certain standard needed to be observed when building homes for severely handicapped persons.[88] The Second Housing Allowance Law of December 1970 simplified the administration of housing allowances and extended entitlements, increased the income limit to 9,600 DM per year plus 2,400 DM for each family member, raised the general deduction on income to determine reckonable income from 15% to 20%, allowance rates listed in tables replacing complicated calculation procedure based on "bearable rent burdens".[33] The Housing Construction Modification Law (1971) increased the income-limit for access to low rent apartments under the social housing programme from 9,000 DM to 12,000 DM per annum plus 3,000 DM (instead of 2,400) for each family member. The law also introduced special subsidies to reduce the debt burden for builders not surpassing the regular income-limit by more than 40%. Under a 1973 law, the limits were increased to 1,000 DM plus 9,000 DM and 4,200 DM for additional family members.[33] The Rent Improvement Law (1971) strengthened the position of tenants. Under this legislation, notice was to be ruled illegal "where appropriate substitute accommodation not available; landlords obliged to specify reasons for notice",[33] whilst the Eviction Protection Law (1971) established tenant protection against rent rises and notice. The notice was only lawful if in the "justified interest of the landlord". Under this law, higher rents were not recognised as "justified interest".[33] The Second Eviction Protection Law (1972) made the tenant protection introduced under the Eviction Protection Law of 1971 permanent. Under this new law, the notice was only lawful where the landlord proved justified personal interest in the apartment. In addition, rent increases were only lawful if not above normal comparable rents in the same area.[33] Directives on the housing of foreign workers came into force in April 1971. These directives imposed certain requirements for space, hygiene, safety, and amenities in the accommodation offered by employers. That same year, the Federal Government granted a sum of 17 million DM to the Länder for the improvement and modernization of housing built before 21 June 1948.[55] In addition, according to a 1971 regulation of the Board of the Federal Labour Office, "construction of workers' hostels qualified for government financial support under certain conditions".[89] The "German Council for town development", which was set up by virtue of Article 89 of a law to foster urban building, was partly aimed at planning a favourable environment for families (such as the provision of playgrounds). In 1971, the Federal Labour Office made available DM 425 million in the form of loans to provide 157 293 beds in 2 494 hostels. A year later, the Federal Government (Bund), the Lander and the Federal Labour Office promoted the construction of dwellings for migrant workers. They set aside 10 million DM for this purpose, which allowed the financing of 1650 family dwellings that year.[43] Development measures were begun in 1972 with federal financial aid granted to the Lander for improvement measures relating to towns and villages, and in the 1972 budget, DM 50 million was earmarked, i.e. a third of the total cost of some 300 schemes. A council for urban development was formed in May 1972 with the purpose of promoting future work and measures in the field of urban renovation.[43] In 1973, the government provided assistance of DM 28 million for the modernisation of old dwellings.[53] New rules were introduced regarding improvements in the law relating to rented property, and control of the rise in rents and protection against cancellation of leases also safeguarded the rights of migrant workers in the sphere of housing.[43] A law of July 1973 fixed the fundamental and minimum requirements regarding workers' dwellings, mainly concerning space, ventilation and lighting, protection against damp, heat and noise, power and heating facilities and sanitary installations.[53] In regards to civil rights, the Brandt Administration introduced a broad range of socially liberal reforms aimed at making West Germany a more open society. Greater legal rights for women were introduced, as exemplified by the standardisation of pensions, divorce laws, regulations governing use of surnames, and the introduction of measures to bring more women into politics.[66] The voting age was lowered from 21 to 18,[90] the age of eligibility for political office was lowered to 21,[75] and the age of majority was lowered to 18 in March 1974.[75] The Third Law for the Liberalization of the Penal Code (1970) liberalised "the right to political demonstration",[23][75] while equal rights were granted to illegitimate children that same year.[34] A 1971 amendment to a federal civil service reform bill enabled fathers to apply for part-time civil service work.[91] In 1971, corporal punishment was banned in schools,[92] and that same year a new Highway Code was introduced.[93] In 1973, a measure was introduced that facilitated the adoption of young children by reducing the minimum age for adoptive parents from 35 to 25.[53] A number of reforms were also carried out to the armed forces,[26] as characterised by a reduction in basic military training from 18 to 15 months, a reorganisation of education and training, and personnel and procurement procedures.[45] Education for the troops was improved,[94] a personnel reshuffle of top management in the Bundeswehr was carried out,[95] academic education was mandated for officers beyond their basic military training, and a new recruiting policy for Bundeswehr personnel was introduced with the intention of building an army that reflected West Germany's pluralistic society. Defense Minister Helmut Schmidt led the development of the first Joint Service Regulation ZDv 10/1 (Assistance for Innere Fuehrung, classified: restricted), which revitalized the concept of Innere Fuehrung while also affirming the value of the "citizen in uniform". According to one study, as a result of this reform, "a strong civil mindset displaced the formerly dominant military mindset", and forced the Bundeswehr's elder generation to accept a new type of soldier envisioned by Schmidt.[96] In addition, the Federal Cost of Moving Act increased the relocation allowance (with effect from 1 November 1973), with the basic allowances raised by DM 50 and DM 100 respectively, while extra allowances for families were raised to a uniform amount of 125 DM.[97] In 1970, the Armed Forces Vocational Schools and the Vocational Advancement Organization extended their services for the first time to conscripts, "so far as military duty permitted".[98] New enlistment bonuses were authorized and previous bonus schemes were improved,[99] and new pay regulations were introduced that improved the financial situation of military personnel and civil servants.[100] In July 1973, the 3rd Amendment to the Civilian Service Act came into force; "a prerequisite for the creation of additional civilian service places for recognized conscientious objectors". The amendment provided that men recognized as conscientious objectors while performing military service should immediately be transferred to a civilian service assignment.[101] The maximum amount for servicemen enlisting for at least 12 years was increased from DM 6,000 to DM 9,000,[102] and from October 1971 onwards, long-term personnel were paid grants towards the cost 'of attending educational institutes of the "second educational route" or participating in state-recognized general education courses provided by private correspondence schools and the "television college"'.[103] In 1972, two Bundeswehr universities were established;[104][105] a reform which, according to one historian, "fought against the closed nature of the military and guaranteed that officers would be better able to successfully interact with the civilian world".[106] From April 1973, the general maintenance payments under the Law amending the Maintenance Security Act and the Workplace Protection Act were increased, while increases were also made in the special allowance (Christmas bonus) for conscripts, together with the dismissal allowance. The expense allowance for troops on duty-related absence from place of employment was improved, together with travel subsidies and provisions for military service damaged soldiers and their families.[107] In addition, the position of non-commissioned officers was improved.[108] A women's policy machinery at the national level was established in 1972[109] while amnesty was guaranteed in minor offences connected with demonstrations.[75] From 1970 onwards, parents as well as landlords were no longer legally prohibited "to give or rent rooms or flats to unmarried couples or to allow them to stay overnight".[110] In October 1972, the legal aid system was improved with the compensation paid to private lawyers for legal services to the poor increased.[111] The Bausparkassen Act of 1972[112] placed all Bausparkassen (from January 1974 onwards) under the supervision of the Federal Banking Supervisory Office, and confined Bausparkassen "to the contract saving business and related activities".[113] The Animal Protection Act, passed in 1972, introduced various safeguards for animals such as not permitting the causing of pain, injury, or suffering to an animal without justification, and limiting experiments to the minimum number of animals necessary.[114] In 1971, rules were introduced making it possible for former guestworkers "to receive an unlimited residence permit after a five-year stay".[115] Legislation aimed at safeguarding consumers was also implemented under the Brandt Administration. The consumer's right of withdrawal in case of hire purchase was strengthened in March 1974,[116] and fixed prices for branded products were abolished by law in January that same year, which meant that manufacturers' recommended prices were not binding for retailers.[116] In addition, a progressive anticartel law was passed.[26] A 1969 law on explosive materials was supplemented by two orders; the first (made in November 1969) establishing a committee of experts for explosive materials, while the second order (made the following month) included details for the implementation of the law on explosive materials. An Act of December 1959 on the peaceful use of nuclear energy and protection against its dangers was amended by an Act of June 1970 that established a tax levied for the costs for permissions and surveillance measures.[81] The Law on Compensation for Measures of Criminal Prosecution and Penalties, passed in March 1971, provided for standardized compensation in certain situations.[117][118][119] In addition, the budget for communications was increased.[47] In terms of working conditions, a number of reforms were introduced aimed at strengthening the rights of workers both at home and in the workplace. The Sickness Act of 1970 provided equal treatment of workers and employees in the event of incapacity for work,[68] while maternity leave was increased.[120] Legislation was introduced in 1970 which ensured continued payment of wages for workers disabled by illness.[61] In 1970 all employees unit for work (with the exception of women in receipt of maternity benefits and temporarily and inconsiderably employed persons) were provided with an unconditional legal claim against their employer to continued payment of their gross wage for a period of 6 weeks, as also in the case of spa treatment approved by an Insurance Fund, the Fund bearing the full cost thereof. Previously, payment of employer's supplement and sick pay were only made from the day on which the doctor certified unfitness for work.[38] In 1972, an Act on Agency Work was passed which sought to prevent works agencies from providing job placement services and aimed to provide job minimum protection for employees in agency work.[121] A law on the hiring out of manpower, passed in October 1972, contained provisions to stipulate prior authorization for the hiring out of manpower, to draw a distinction between the system governing workers hired out and the placing of workers, to regulate and improve the rights of hired out workers pertaining to working conditions and social insurance, and provide for more severe penalties and fines to be imposed on offenders.[43] Improvements were also made in income and work conditions for home workers,[122] accident insurance was extended to non-working adults,[30] and the Border Zone Assistance Act (1971) increased levels of assistance to the declining zonal peripheral area.[123] The Occupational Safety Act (1973) required employers to provide company doctors and safety experts.[124] A directive on protection against noise at the place of work was adopted in November 1970. If measurements showed or there was reason to assume that a noise level guide value of 90 dB( A) may be exceeded at the place of work, then the authority had to instruct the employer to arrange check-ups of the employees concerned and these employees had to use personal noise protection devices.[43] A matching fund program for 15 million employees was also introduced, which stimulated them to accumulate capital.[26] A ministerial order of January 1970 extended protection in cases of partial unemployment to home workers, while an ordinance of August 1970 fixed the conditions of health necessary for service in the merchant navy. A general provision of October 1970 determined in detail the circumstances in which the competent authority must take action on the basis of the act on the technical means of work. The requirement also stipulated the extent to which the technical standards established by national and international organisations can be regarded as "rules of the art".[81] In a directive of 10 November 1970, the Minister of Labour and Social Affairs recommended to the higher authorities for work protection of the "Lander" to bring in the directive published, in agreement with the Ministry of Labour, by the German Engineers' Association on the evaluation of work station noise in relation to loss of hearing, in order to improve safeguards for workers against the noises in question. In September 1971, an ordinance was published concerning dangerous working materials; safeguarding persons using these materials against the dangers involved. In August 1971, a law came into force directed at reducing atmospheric pollution from lead compounds in four-stroke engine fuels. As a safeguard against radiation, a decree on the system of authorisations for medicaments treated with ionizing radiation or containing radioactive substances, in its version of 8 August 1967, was remodelled by a new Decree of 10 May 1971 which added some radionuclides to the list of medicaments which doctors in private practice were authorized to use. By a decree of the Federal Minister for Labour and Social Order, the Federal Institute for Industrial Protection became the Federal Agency for Industrial Protection and Accident Research. Amongst its designated tasks included the promotion of industrial protection, accident prevention on the journey to and from work and accident prevention in the home and leisure activities, the encouragement of training and advanced training in the area of industrial protection, and to promote and coordinate accident research. A regulation was issued in 1972 which permitted for the first time the employment of women as drivers of trams, omnibuses and lorries, while further regulations laid down new provisions for lifts and work with compressed air.[43] The Factory Constitution Law (1971) strengthened the rights of individual employees "to be informed and to be heard on matters concerning their place of work". The Works Council was provided with greater authority while trade unions were given the right of entry into the factory "provided they informed the employer of their intention to do so",[21] while a law was passed to encourage wider share ownership by workers and other rank-and-file employees.[21] The Industrial Relations Law (1972) and the Personnel Representation Act (1974) broadened the rights of employees in matters which immediately affected their places of work, while also improving the possibilities for codetermination on operations committees, together with access of trade unions to companies.[61] The Works Constitution Act of 1972 required in cases of collective dismissal at an establishment normally employing more than twenty employees that management and the works council must negotiate a social plan that stipulates compensation for workers who lose their jobs. In cases where the two parties could not agree on a social plan, the law provided for binding arbitration.[125] In 1972, the rights of works councils to information from management were not only strengthened, but works councils were also provided with full codetermination rights on issues such as working time arrangements in the plant, the setting of piece rates, plant wage systems, the establishment of vacation times, work breaks, overtime, and short-time work.[126] Legislation was passed which acknowledged for the first time the presence of trade unions in the workplace, expanded the means of action of the works councils, and improved their work basics as well as those of the youth councils.[127] A law of January 1972 on the organization of labour in enterprises significantly extended the works council's right of cooperation and co-management in the matter of vocational training. That same year, the Safety Institute of the Federal Republic of Germany was transformed into a public Federal Agency (Bundesanstalt) with significantly enlarged powers, in the context of which special emphasis would be placed on its new task of promoting and coordinating research in the area of accident prevention.[43] New provisions were introduced for the rehabilitation of severely disabled people ("Schwerbehinderte") and accident victims.[66] The Severely Disabled Persons Act of April 1974 obliged all employers with more than fifteen employees to ensure that 6% of their workforce consisted of people officially recognised as being severely handicapped. Employers who failed to do so were assessed 100 DM per month for every job falling before the required quota. These compensatory payments were used to "subsidise the adaptation of workplaces to the requirements of those who were severely handicapped".[34] A law passed in January 1974, designed to protect members of the supervisory boards of companies who are undergoing training, was aimed at ensuring that the representatives of young workers and youthful members of works councils still undergoing training could perform their duties with greater independence and without fear of disadvantageous consequences for their future careers. On request, workers' representatives on completion of their training courses had to have an employment relationship of unlimited duration.[54] In the field of transport, the Municipal Transportation Finance Law of 1971 established federal guidelines for subsidies to municipal governments,[128] while the Federal Transport Plan of 1973 provided a framework for all transport, including public transport.[129] In addition, the Severely Handicapped Persons Act of April 1974 extended the welfare and promotional obligations of the employer, and provided a right to extra holiday consisting of six working days.[88] A federal environmental programme was established in 1971,[130] and in 1972 laws were passed to regulate garbage elimination and air pollution via emission.[131] Matching grants covering 90% of infrastructure development were allocated to local communities, which led to a dramatic increase in the number of public swimming pools and other facilities of consumptive infrastructure throughout West Germany.[28] The federal crime-fighting apparatus was also modernised,[26] while a Foreign Tax Act was passed which limited the possibility of tax evasion.[132] In addition, efforts were made to improve the railways and motorways.[26] In 1971, a law was passed setting the maximum lead content at 0.4 grams per liter of gasoline,[133] and in 1972 DDT was banned.[134] The Federal Immissions Control Law, passed in March 1974, provided protection from noxious gases, noise, and air-borne particulate matter.[135] Under the Brandt Administration, West Germany attained a lower rate of inflation than in other industrialised countries at that time,[25] while a rise in the standard of living took place, helped by the floating and revaluation of the mark.[25] This was characterised by the real incomes of employees increasing more sharply than incomes from entrepreneurial work, with the proportion of employees' incomes in the overall national income rising from 65% to 70% between 1969 and 1973, while the proportion of income from entrepreneurial work and property fell over that same period from just under 35% to 30%.[45] In addition, the percentage of West Germans living in poverty (based on various definitions) fell between 1969 and 1973.[33][136] According to one estimate, the percentage of West Germans living in poverty fell from 9.7% to 8.9% between 1969 and 1973, and from 20.2% to 14.0% according to another estimate.[137] According to another estimate, the percentage of West Germans living in poverty during this period fell from 2.7% to 1.4%.[138] Finance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA".[139] Mounting external problems forced Schmidt to concentrate on foreign policy and limited the domestic reforms that he could carry out. The USSR upgraded its intermediate-range missiles, which Schmidt complained was an unacceptable threat to the balance of nuclear power, because it increased the likelihood of political coercion and required a western response. NATO respond in the form of its twin-track policy. The domestic reverberations were serious inside the SDP, and undermined its coalition with the FDP.[140] One of his major successes, in collaboration with French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, was the launching of the European Monetary System (EMS) in April 1978.[141] In October 1982 the SPD–FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a constructive vote of no confidence. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6% of the vote. In January 1987 the Kohl–Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8% of the vote in 1983 to 44.3%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD Chairman Brandt subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by Hans-Jochen Vogel. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9.1%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8.3% from their 1983 share of 5.6%. With the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1989, symbolised by the opening of the Berlin Wall, there was a rapid move towards German reunification; and a final settlement of the post-war special status of Germany. Following democratic elections, East Germany declared its accession to the Federal Republic subject to the terms of the Unification Treaty between the two states; and then both West Germany and East Germany radically amended their respective constitutions in accordance with that Treaty's provisions. East Germany then dissolved itself, and its five post-war states (Länder) were reconstituted, along with the reunited Berlin which ended its special status and formed an additional Land. They formally joined the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, raising the number of states from 10 to 16, ending the division of Germany. The expanded Federal Republic retained West Germany's political culture and continued its existing memberships in international organisations, as well as its Western foreign policy alignment and affiliation to Western alliances like NATO and the European Union. The official German reunification ceremony on 3 October 1990 was held at the Reichstag building, including Chancellor Helmut Kohl, President Richard von Weizsäcker, former Chancellor Willy Brandt and many others. One day later, the parliament of the united Germany would assemble in an act of symbolism in the Reichstag building. However, at that time, the role of Berlin had not yet been decided upon. Only after a fierce debate, considered by many as one of the most memorable sessions of parliament, the Bundestag concluded on 20 June 1991, with quite a slim majority, that both government and parliament should move to Berlin from Bonn. The West German Wirtschaftswunder ("economic miracle", coined by The Times) began in 1950. This improvement was sustained by the currency reform of 1948 which replaced the Reichsmark with the Deutsche Mark and halted rampant inflation. The Allied dismantling of the West German coal and steel industry finally ended in 1950. As demand for consumer goods increased after World War II, the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products. At the time Germany had a large pool of skilled and cheap labour, partly as a result of the flight and expulsion of Germans from Central and Eastern Europe, which affected up to 16.5 million Germans. This helped Germany to more than double the value of its exports during the war. Apart from these factors, hard work and long hours at full capacity among the population and in the late 1950s and 1960s extra labour supplied by thousands of Gastarbeiter ("guest workers") provided a vital base for the economic upturn. This would have implications later on for successive German governments as they tried to assimilate this group of workers.[142] With the dropping of Allied reparations, the freeing of German intellectual property and the impact of the Marshall Plan stimulus, West Germany developed one of the strongest economies in the world, almost as strong as before the Second World War. The East German economy showed a certain growth, but not as much as in West Germany, partly because of continued reparations to the USSR.[143] In 1952, West Germany became part of the European Coal and Steel Community, which would later evolve into the European Union. On 5 May 1955 West Germany was declared to have the "authority of a sovereign state".[a] The British, French and U.S. militaries remained in the country, just as the Soviet Army remained in East Germany. Four days after obtaining the "authority of a sovereign state" in 1955, West Germany joined NATO. The UK and the USA retained an especially strong presence in West Germany, acting as a deterrent in case of a Soviet invasion. In 1976 West Germany became one of the founding nations of the Group of Six (G6). In 1973, West Germany—home to roughly 1.26% of the world's population—featured the world's fourth largest GDP of 944 billion (5.9% of the world total). In 1987 the FRG held a 7.4% share of total world production. Total population of West Germany from 1950 to 1990, as collected by the Statistisches Bundesamt.[2] [144] Religious affiliation in West Germany decreased from the 1960s onward.[146] Religious affiliation declined faster among Protestants than among Catholics, causing the Roman Catholic Church to overtake the EKD as the largest denomination in the country during the 1970s. The official position of West Germany concerning East Germany at the outset was that the West German government was the only democratically elected, and therefore the only legitimate, representative of the German people. According to the Hallstein Doctrine, any country (with the exception of the USSR) that recognised the authorities of the German Democratic Republic would not have diplomatic relations with West Germany. In the early 1970s, Willy Brandt's policy of "Neue Ostpolitik" led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The Treaty of Moscow (August 1970), the Treaty of Warsaw (December 1970), the Four Power Agreement on Berlin (September 1971), the Transit Agreement (May 1972), and the Basic Treaty (December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both German states joining the United Nations. The Hallstein Doctrine was relinquished, and West Germany ceased to claim an exclusive mandate for Germany as a whole. Following the Ostpolitik the West German view was that East Germany was a de facto government within a single German nation and a de jure state organisation of parts of Germany outside the Federal Republic. The Federal Republic continued to maintain that it could not within its own structures recognise the GDR de jure as a sovereign state under international law; while at the same time acknowledging that, within the structures of international law, the GDR was an independent sovereign state. By distinction, West Germany then viewed itself as being within its own boundaries, not only the de facto and de jure government, but also the sole de jure legitimate representative of a dormant "Germany as whole".[148] The two Germanys relinquished any claim to represent the other internationally; which they acknowledged as necessarily implying a mutual recognition of each other as both capable of representing their own populations de jure in participating in international bodies and agreements, such as the United Nations and the Helsinki Final Act. This assessment of the Basic Treaty was confirmed in a decision of the Federal Constitutional Court in 1973;[149] The West German Constitution (Grundgesetz, "Basic Law") provided two articles for the unification with other parts of Germany: After the peaceful revolution of 1989 in East Germany, the Volkskammer of the GDR on 23 August 1990 declared the accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic under Article 23 of the Basic Law; and so initiated the process of reunification, to come into effect on 3 October 1990. Nevertheless, the act of reunification itself (with its many specific terms and conditions; including fundamental amendments to the West German Basic Law) was achieved constitutionally by the subsequent Unification Treaty of 31 August 1990; that is through a binding agreement between the former GDR and the Federal Republic now recognising each another as separate sovereign states in international law.[151] This treaty was then voted into effect on 20 September 1990 by both the Volkskammer and the Bundestag by the constitutionally required two-thirds majorities; effecting on the one hand, the extinction of the GDR and the re-establishment of Länder on the territory of East Germany; and on the other, the agreed amendments to the Basic Law of the Federal Republic. Amongst these amendments was the repeal of the very Article 23 in respect of which the GDR had nominally declared its postdated accession to the Federal Republic. The two German states entered into a currency and customs union in July 1990, and on 3 October 1990, the German Democratic Republic dissolved and the re-established five East German Länder (as well as a unified Berlin) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, bringing an end to the East-West divide. Political life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949–63) was followed by a brief period under Ludwig Erhard (1963–66) who, in turn, was replaced by Kurt Georg Kiesinger (1966–69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by the united caucus of the Christian-Democratic Union (CDU) and Christian Social Union (CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller Free Democratic Party (FDP) or other right-wing parties. Kiesinger's 1966–69 "Grand Coalition" was between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was important for the introduction of new emergency acts—the Grand Coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required to see them in. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as freedom of movement to be limited in case of a state of emergency. Leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the FDP, the rising German student movement, a group calling itself Notstand der Demokratie ("Democracy in a State of Emergency") and the labour unions. Demonstrations and protests grew in number, and in 1967 the student Benno Ohnesorg was shot in the head by a policeman. The press, especially the tabloid Bild-Zeitung newspaper, launched a campaign against the protesters. By 1968 a stronger desire to confront the Nazi past had come into being. In the 1970s environmentalism and anti-nationalism became fundamental values among left-wing Germans. As a result, in 1979 the Greens were able to reach the 5% minimum required to obtain parliamentary seats in the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen state election, and with the foundation of the national party in 1980 developed into one of the most politically successful green movements in the world. Another result of the unrest in the 1960s was the founding of the Red Army Faction (RAF). The RAF was active from 1968, carrying out a succession of terrorist attacks in West Germany during the 1970s. Even in the 1990s, attacks were still being committed under the name RAF. The last action took place in 1993, and in 1998 the group announced it was ceasing activities. In the 1969 election, the SPD gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. SPD leader and Chancellor Willy Brandt remained head of government until May 1974, when he resigned after the Guillaume Affair, in which a senior member of his staff was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the Stasi. However the affair is widely considered to have been merely a trigger for Brandt's resignation, not a fundamental cause. Instead, Brandt, dogged by scandal relating to alcohol and depression[152][153] as well as the economic fallout of the 1973 oil crisis, almost seems simply to have had enough. As Brandt himself later said, "I was exhausted, for reasons which had nothing to do with the process going on at the time".[154] Finance Minister Helmut Schmidt (SPD) then formed a government, continuing the SPD–FDP coalition. He served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, a leading FDP official, was Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister in the same years. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA". The goals of SPD and FDP however drifted apart in the late 1970s and early 1980s. On 1 October 1982 the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl as Chancellor in a constructive vote of no confidence. Following national elections in March 1983, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, because of the entry into the Bundestag of the Greens, who received 5.6% of the vote. In January 1987 the Kohl–Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. The Social Democrats concluded that not only were the Greens unlikely to form a coalition, but also that such a coalition would be far from a majority. Neither condition changed until 1998. In 1951 several laws were passed, ending the denazification. As a result, many people with a former Nazi past ended up again in the political apparatus of West Germany. West German President Walter Scheel and Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger were both former members of the Nazi Party. In 1957, 77% of the West German Ministry of Justice's senior officials were former Nazi Party members.[155] Konrad Adenauer's State Secretary Hans Globke had played a major role in drafting anti-semitic Nuremberg Race Laws in Nazi Germany.[156] In many aspects, German culture continued in spite of the dictatorship and wartime. Old and new forms coexisted next to each other, and the American influence, already strong in the 1920s, grew.[citation needed] In the 20th century, association football became the largest sport in Germany. The Germany national football team, established in 1900, continued its tradition based in the Federal Republic of Germany, winning the 1954 FIFA World Cup in a stunning upset dubbed the miracle of Bern. Earlier, the German team was not considered part of the international top. The 1974 FIFA World Cup was held in West German cities and West Berlin. After having been beaten by their East German counterparts in the first round, the team of the German Football Association won the cup again, defeating the Netherlands 2–1 in the final. With the process of unification in full swing in the summer of 1990, the Germans won a third World Cup, with players that had been capped for East Germany not yet permitted to contribute. European championships have been won too, in 1972, 1980 and 1996.[citation needed] After both Olympic Games of 1936 had been held in Germany, Munich was selected to host the 1972 Summer Olympics. These were also the first summer games in which the East Germans showed up with the separate flag and anthem of the GDR. Since the 1950s, Germany at the Olympics had been represented by a united team led by the pre-war German NOC officials as the IOC had denied East German demands for a separate team.[citation needed] As in 1957, when the Saarland acceded, East German sport organisations ceased to exist in late 1990 as their subdivisions and their members joined their Western counterparts. Thus, the present German organisations and teams in football, Olympics and elsewhere are identical to those that had been informally called "West German" before 1991. The only differences were a larger membership and a different name used by some foreigners. These organisations and teams in turn mostly continued the traditions of those that represented Germany before the Second World War, and even the First World War, thus providing a century-old continuity despite political changes. On the other hand, the separate East German teams and organisations were founded in the 1950s; they were an episode lasting less than four decades, yet quite successful in that time.[citation needed] As of 2012, West Germany have played a record 43 matches at the European Championships.[157] Besides the interest in the older generation of writers, new authors emerged on the background of the experiences of war and after war period. Wolfgang Borchert, a former soldier who died young in 1947, is one of the best known representatives of the Trümmerliteratur. Heinrich Böll is considered an observer of the young Federal Republic from the 1950s to the 1970s, and caused some political controversies because of his increasingly critical view on society.[citation needed] The Frankfurt Book Fair (and its Peace Prize of the German Book Trade) soon developed into a regarded institution. Exemplary for West Germany's literature are – among others – Siegfried Lenz (with The German Lesson) and Günter Grass (with The Tin Drum and The Flounder). In West Germany, most of the political agencies and buildings were located in Bonn, while the German Stock Market was located in Frankfurt am Main, which became the economic center. The judicial branch of both the German Federal Constitutional Court (Bundesverfassungsgericht) and the highest Court of Appeals, were located in Karlsruhe. The West German government was known to be much more decentralised than its state socialist East German counterpart, the former being a federal state and the latter a unitary one. Whilst East Germany was divided into 15 administrative districts (Bezirke), which were merely local branches of the national government, West Germany was divided into states (Länder) with independently elected state parliaments and control of the Bundesrat, the second legislative chamber of the Federal Government. Today, North Rhine-Westphalia is often considered to be Western Germany in geographical terms. When distinguishing between former West Germany and former East Germany as parts of present-day unified Germany, it has become most common to refer to the Alte Bundesländer (old states) and the Neue Bundesländer (new states), although Westdeutschland and Ostdeutschland are still heard as well. Media related to West Germany at Wikimedia Commons

Hudson Motor Car Company

The Hudson Motor Car Company made Hudson and other brand automobiles in Detroit, Michigan, U.S., from 1909 to 1954. In 1954, Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator to form American Motors Corporation (AMC). The Hudson name was continued through the 1957 model year, after which it was discontinued. The name "Hudson" came from Joseph L. Hudson, a Detroit department store entrepreneur and founder of Hudson's department store, who provided the necessary capital and gave permission for the company to be named after him. A total of eight Detroit businessmen formed the company on February 20, 1909,[2] to produce an automobile which would sell for less than US$1,000 (equivalent to approximately $28,456 in 2019 funds[3]). One of the chief "car men" and organizer of the company was Roy D. Chapin, Sr., a young executive who had worked with Ransom E. Olds. (Chapin's son, Roy Jr., would later be president of Hudson-Nash descendant American Motors Corp. in the 1960s). The company quickly started production, with the first car driven out of a small factory in Detroit on July 3, 1909 at Mack Avenue and Beaufait Street in Detroit, occupying the old Aerocar factory.[1] The new Hudson "Twenty" was one of the first low-priced cars on the American market and very successful with more than 4,000 sold the first year. The 4,508 units made in 1910 was the best first year's production in the history of the automobile industry and put the newly formed company in 17th place industry-wide, "a remarkable achievement at a time" when there were hundreds of makes being marketed.[4] Successful sales volume required a larger factory. A new facility was built on a 22-acre parcel at Jefferson Avenue and Conner Avenue in Detroit's Fairview section that was diagonally across from the Chalmers Automobile plant.[1] The land was the former farm of D.J. Campau. Until the late 1920s, bodies for Hudson cars were built by Biddle and Smart. On 1 July 1926, Hudson's new $10 million body plant was completed where the automaker could now build the all-steel closed bodies for both the Hudson and Essex models. It was designed by the firm of renowned industrial architect Albert Kahn with 223,500 square feet and opened on October 29, 1910.[5] Production in 1911 increased to 6,486.[6] For 1914 Hudsons for the American market were now left hand drive. The company had a number of firsts for the auto industry; these included dual brakes, the use of dashboard oil-pressure and generator warning lights, and the first balanced crankshaft, which allowed the Hudson straight-six engine, dubbed the "Super Six" (1916), to work at a higher rotational speed while remaining smooth, developing more power for its size than lower-speed engines. The Super Six was the first engine built by Hudson, previously Hudson had developed engine designs and then had them manufactured by Continental Motors Company. Most Hudsons until 1957 had straight-6 engines. The dual brake system used a secondary mechanical emergency brake system, which activated the rear brakes when the pedal traveled beyond the normal reach of the primary system; a mechanical parking brake was also used. Hudson transmissions also used an oil bath and cork clutch mechanism that proved to be as durable as it was smooth. At their peak in 1929, Hudson and Essex produced a combined 300,000 cars in one year, including contributions from Hudson's other factories in Belgium and England; a factory had been built in 1925 in Brentford in London.[7] Hudson was the third largest U.S. car maker that year, after Ford Motor Company and Chevrolet.[8] In 1919, Hudson introduced the Essex brand line of automobiles; the line was originally for budget-minded buyers, designed to compete with Ford and Chevrolet, as opposed to the more up-scale Hudson line. The Essex found great success by offering one of the first affordable sedans, and combined Hudson and Essex sales moved from seventh in the U.S. to third by 1925.[9] In 1932, Hudson began phasing out its Essex nameplate for the modern Terraplane brand name. The new line was launched on July 21, 1932, with a promotional christening by Amelia Earhart. For 1932 and 1933, the restyled cars were named Essex-Terraplane; from 1934 as Terraplane, until 1938 when the Terraplane was renamed the Hudson 112. Hudson also began assembling cars in Canada, contracting Canada Top and Body to build the cars in their Tilbury, Ontario, plant. In England Terraplanes built at the Brentford factory were still being advertised in 1938.[10] An optional accessory on some 1935–1938 Hudson and Terraplane models was a steering column-mounted electric gear pre-selector and electro-mechanical automatic shifting system, known as the "Electric Hand", manufactured by the Bendix Corporation. This took the place of the floor-mounted shift lever, but required conventional clutch actions. Cars equipped with Electric Hand also carried a conventional shift lever in clips under the dash, which could be pulled out and put to use in case the Electric Hand should ever fail. Hudson was also noted for offering an optional vacuum-powered automatic clutch, starting in the early 1930s. For the 1930 model year Hudson debuted a new flathead inline eight cylinder engine with block and Crankcase cast as a unit and fitted with two cylinder heads. A 2.75-inch bore and 4.5-inch stroke displaced 218.8 cubic inches developing 80 horsepower (60 kilowatts; 81 metric horsepower) at 3,600 rpm with the standard 5.78:1 compression ratio. The 5 main bearing crankshaft had 8 integral counterweights, an industry first, and also employed a Lanchester vibration damper. Four rubber blocks were used at engine mount points. A valveless oil pump improved the Hudson splash lubrication system. The new eights were the only engine offering in the Hudson line, supplanting the Super Six, which soldiered on in the Essex models.[5] At the 1931 Indianapolis 500, Buddy Marr's #27 Hudson Special (using a Winfield carburetor) finished tenth.[11] In 1936, Hudson revamped its cars, introducing a new "radial safety control" / "rhythmic ride" suspension which suspended the live front axle from two steel bars, as well as from leaf springs. Doing this allowed the use of longer, softer leaf springs ("rhythmic ride"), and prevented bumps and braking from moving the car off course. The 1936 Hudsons were also considerably larger inside than competitive cars — Hudson claimed a 145-cubic-foot (4.1 m3) interior, comparing it to the 121 cubic feet (3.4 m3) in the "largest of other popular cars" of the time. With an optional bulging trunk lid, Hudson claimed the trunk could accommodate 21 cubic feet (0.59 m3) of luggage. The 1936 engines were powerful for the time, from 93 to 124 horsepower (69 to 92 kilowatts; 94 to 126 metric horsepower). The 1939 models joined other American cars in the use of a column-mounted gearshift lever. This freed front-seat passenger space and remained the industry standard through the 1960s, when "bucket seats" came into vogue. Hudson became the first car manufacturer to use foam rubber in its seats. The Hudson Terraplane was dropped. For 1940 Hudson introduced coil spring independent front suspension, aircraft-style shock absorbers mounted within the front springs and true center-point steering on all its models, a major advance in performance among cars in this price range. The Super Six model was reintroduced as well. Despite all these changes, Hudson sales for 1940 were lower than 1939 and the company lost money again. The advent of military contracts the following year brought relief. The 1941 Hudsons retained the front end styling of the 1940 models but the bodies were new with 5.5 inches added to their length giving more legroom. A new manual 3-speed syncromesh transmission was quieter with all helical gears. Wheelbases increased by 3 inches, with offerings of 116, 121 and 128 inches, and height was decreased with flatter roofs. Convertibles now had a power operated top. Big Boy trucks now used the 128-inch wheelbase. In 1942, as a response to General Motors' Hydramatic automatic transmission, Hudson introduced its "Drive-Master" system. Drive-Master was a more sophisticated combination of the concepts used in the Electric Hand and the automatic clutch. At the touch of a button, Drive-Master offered the driver a choice of three modes of operation: ordinary, manual shifting and clutching; manual shifting with automatic clutching; and automatic shifting with automatic clutching. All this was accomplished by a large and complicated mechanism located under the hood. They worked well, and in fully automatic mode served as a good semi-automatic transmission. When coupled with an automatic overdrive, Drive-Master became known as Super-Matic. Re-engineering of the frame rear end to use lower springs reduced car height by 1.5 inches (38 mm). Sheet metal "spats" on the lower body now covered the running boards and new wider front and rear fenders accommodated this. As the role of women increased in car-purchase decisions, automakers began to hire female designers.[12] Hudson, wanting a female perspective on automotive design, hired Elizabeth Ann Thatcher in 1939, one of America's first female automotive designers.[13][14][15][16] Her contributions to the 1941 Hudson included exterior trim with side lighting, interior instrument panel, interiors and interior trim fabrics.[14] She designed for Hudson from 1939 into 1941, leaving the company when she married Joe Oros, then a designer for Cadillac. He later became head of the design team at Ford that created the Mustang. As ordered by the Federal government, Hudson ceased auto production from 1942 until 1945 in order to manufacture material during World War II, including aircraft parts and naval engines, and anti-aircraft guns. The Hudson "Invader" engine powered many of the landing craft used on the D-Day invasion of Normandy, June 6, 1944. During World War II Hudson had also an aircraft division which produced ailerons for one large eastern airplane builder.[17][18] The plant was capable of large scale production of wings and ailerons as well as other airplane parts. On May 22, 1941, Hudson was given a contract for the Oerlikon 20 mm cannon with the Jefferson Avenue Plant, on Jefferson Avenue and Connor Avenue, responsible to convert the original Swiss drawings to American production standards.[19] The company produced 33,201 Oerlikons for the United States Navy with the original mechanism continued in use without major change and with complete interchangeability of parts until the end of the war.[19] Hudson also manufactured millions of other weaponry and vehicle parts for the war effort. Hudson ranked 83rd among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.[20] Production resumed after the war and included a 128-inch (3,251 mm) wheelbase three-quarter-ton pickup truck.[21] In 1948, the company launched their "step-down" bodies, which lasted through the 1954 model year. The term step-down referred to Hudson's placement of the passenger compartment down inside the perimeter of the frame; riders stepped down into a floor that was surrounded by the perimeter of the car's frame. The result was not only a safer car, and greater passenger comfort as well, but, through a lower center of gravity, good-handling car. In time almost all U.S. automakers would embrace it as a means of building bodies. Automotive author Richard Langworth described the step-down models as the greatest autos of the era in articles for Consumer Guide and Collectible Automobile.[citation needed] For the 1951 model year the 6 cylinder engine got a new block with thicker walls and other improvements to boost Horsepower by almost 18% and torque by 28.5% making Hudson a hot performer again. The GM-supplied 4-speed Hydramatic automatic transmission was now optional in Hornets and Commodore Custom 6s and 8s. Hudson's strong, light-weight bodies, combined with its high-torque inline six-cylinder engine technology, made the company's 1951–54 Hornet an auto racing champion, dominating NASCAR in 1951, 1952, 1953, and 1954. Herb Thomas won the 1951 and 1954 Southern 500s and Dick Rathmann won in 1952. Some NASCAR records set by Hudson in the 1950s (e.g. consecutive wins in one racing season) still stand even today. Hudson cars also did very well in races sanctioned by the AAA Contest Board from 1952 to 1954 with Marshall Teague winning the 1952 AAA Stock Car Championship and Frank Mundy in 1953. Often Hudsons finished in most of the top positions in races. Later, these cars met with some success in drag racing, where their high power-to-weight ratio worked to their advantage. Hudsons enjoyed success both in NHRA trials and local dirt track events. As the post-war marketplace shifted from a seller's to a buyer's market the smaller U.S. automakers, such as Hudson and Nash, found it increasingly difficult to compete with the Big Three (Ford, GM and Chrysler) during the 1950s.[22] A sales war between Ford and General Motors conducted during 1953 and 1954 had left little business for the much smaller "independent" automakers trying to compete against the standard models offered by the domestic Big Three.[23] The Big Three could afford constant development and styling changes, so that their cars looked fresh every year, whereas the smaller manufacturers could only afford gradual change. Hudson's once innovative "step-down" unit body construction, while sturdy and innovative, also made restyling difficult and expensive. Although Hudsons dominated racing during this period, their feats did little to affect showroom traffic. Sales fell each year from 1951 to 1954 and only Korean War military contracts kept the company afloat. On March 20, 1954, the Hudson Motor Car Company reported a loss of $10,411,060 in 1953 as compared with a profit of $8,307,847 in 1952.[24] After the company's high-priced Jet compact car line failed to capture buyers in its second straight year, Hudson CEO A.E. Barit engaged with George W. Mason, CEO of Nash-Kelvinator (makers of Nash and Rambler) to discuss the possibility of a merger with Nash. Mason already had the vision of merging the four independent auto makers (Nash, Hudson, Packard, and Studebaker) into one company to compete with the Big Three, having floated the idea as early as 1946 with Packard to no avail.[25] Mason had previously discussed the idea with Barit in 1952. On 14 January 1954 an agreement was reached and Nash and Hudson executives took the first steps to bring the two companies together.[26] On May 1, 1954, Hudson merged with Nash-Kelvinator to become American Motors Corporation. George W. Mason became CEO and president of AMC while Hudson's president, A.E. Barit retired to become an AMC board member.[27] The Hudson factory, located in Detroit, Michigan, was converted to military contract production at the end of the model year, and the remaining three years of Hudson production took place at the Nash plant in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Nash would focus most of its marketing resources on its smaller Rambler models, and Hudson would focus its marketing efforts on its full-sized cars. The first Hudson model to terminate production was the Jet. The new company could then focus on the more successful Nash Rambler.[28] Henceforth, Hudson dealers would have badge-engineered versions of the Nash Rambler and Metropolitan compacts to sell as Hudson products. One of the first things Mason did as CEO of the new company was to initiate talks with James J. Nance, president of Packard, for parts-sharing arrangements between AMC and Packard. At this time AMC did not have its own V8 engine and an agreement was made for the new 320 cu in (5.2 L) Packard V8 engine and Packard's Ultramatic automatic transmission to be used in the 1955 Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet models. In July 1954, Packard acquired Studebaker to form Studebaker-Packard Corporation,[29] however further talks of a merger between AMC and Packard-Studebaker were cut short when Mason died on October 8, 1954. A week after his death, Mason's successor, George W. Romney, announced "there are no mergers under way either directly or indirectly".[30] Nevertheless, Romney continued with Mason's commitment to buy components from Studebaker-Packard Corporation. Although Mason and Nance had previously agreed that Studebaker-Packard would purchase parts from AMC, it did not do so. Moreover, Packard's engines and transmissions were comparatively expensive, so AMC began development of its own V8 engine, and replaced the outsourced unit by mid-1956.[31] For 1955, both Hudson and Nash senior models were built on a common automobile platform using styling themes by Pinin Farina, Edmund E. Anderson, and Frank Spring. Common-body shell production for competing makes of automobiles was a manufacturing technique that had been used by the Big Three for decades. Anderson set up separate design studios for Nash, Hudson, and Rambler. Although the 1955 Hudson used the inner body shell of the Nash, the car incorporated a front cowl originally designed by Spring and the Hudson team to be put on the 1954 Step-Down platform. The 1955 models also used the Hudson dashboard, "triple safe brakes" and the Nash Weather Eye heater with Harrison Radiator Corporation-supplied lower cost Freon/compressor type air conditioning. For 1955, for the first time, Hudson offered a V8 engine, the Packard-designed and -built[32] 320-cubic-inch (5.2 L) engine rated at 208 hp (155 kW). All cars with the Packard V8 also used Packard's Ultramatic automatic transmission[33][34] as an option costing $494 (equivalent to approximately $4,646[3]);[32] the Nash 3-speed manual was also available at US$295.[35] Hudson dealers also sold Rambler and Metropolitan models under the Hudson brand. (4357 Metropolitans were sold as "Hudson.") When sold by Hudson dealers, both cars were identified as Hudson vehicles via hood/grille emblems and horn buttons. Hudson Ramblers also received "H" symbols on fuel filler caps (and, in 1956, also on hubcaps). In 1956 ex-Hudson president A.E Barit resigned from the Board in protest over the likelihood that Hudson would be phased out of production. For 1956, design of the senior Hudsons was given over to designer Richard Arbib, which resulted in the "V-Line" styling motif, a combination of "V" motifs that carried Hudson's triangular corporate logo theme. Sales fell below 1955 figures. With a wider front track than Nash used, Hudson was the better handling car, and was powered by the famed 308-cubic-inch (5.05 L) Hornet Six with the optional high-compression cylinder head and dual-carburetor manifold ("Twin-H Power"); the Twin H would disappear at the end of the 1956 model year.[36] The Wasp used the 202-cubic-inch (3.3 L) L-head Jet Six engine (up to 130 hp [97 kW]) and this model (in sedan version) was Hudson's top seller. For 1957, Hudson dropped the shorter-wheelbase Wasp line, selling only the Hornet Custom and Super, which featured a lowered profile and slightly updated styling. George W. Romney felt that Hudson and Nash were no longer relevant players in the automotive market and retired both names at the end of the 1957 model year production. Rambler and Metropolitan became makes in their own rights, and no longer were identified as Hudson or Nash. The last Hudson rolled off the Kenosha assembly line on June 25, 1957. There were no ceremonies, because at that point there was still hope of continuing the Hudson and Nash names into the 1958 model year on the Rambler chassis as deluxe, longer-wheelbase senior models. The combined Nash and Hudson production volume was not sufficient to justify all new design and tooling, so the Rambler's platform was expected to be adopted to the longer cars.[37] One major trade magazine said rumors of discontinuance were false and the 1958 Hudsons and Nashes "would be big and smart". Factory styling photographs show designs for a 1958 Hudson (and Nash) line based on a longer-wheelbase 1958 Rambler. Front-end prototype photos show separate Hudson and Nash styling themes.[38] AMC's President, George W. Romney came to the conclusion that the only way to compete with the "Big Three" was to stake the future of AMC on a new smaller-sized car line.[39] Neither Hudson nor Nash brand names had as much positive market recognition as the successful Rambler and their sales were lagging. Together with AMC's chief engineer Meade Moore, Romney had completely phased out the Nash and Hudson brands at the end of 1957. The decision to retire the brands came so quickly that preproduction photographs of the eventual 1958 Rambler Ambassador show both Nash- and Hudson-badged versions. The Rambler brand was selected for further development and promotion while focusing exclusively on compact cars.[40] Eventually, however, something close to the Hudson design was chosen for the 1958 Rambler Ambassador. Hudson brand enthusiasts will note the triangular grille guard and 1957-like fender "gun sights" and the fast-selling 1958 Rambler Customs wore 1957 Hudson-styled front-fender trim. Hudson, Essex, and Terraplane vehicles were either exported as complete cars or locally-built from knock-down kits in many countries making the Hudson marque well known internationally as well as domestically. In its 1929 report, banking house Garden Detroit Company reported that in 1928 Hudson shipped 50,587 vehicles overseas, or 17.9% of total production.[41] By March 1929 Hudson had topped all previous production figures having exported 44,295 cars in March alone, bringing the total of shipments for the first quarter of 1929 to an all-time high of 108,298.[42] Hudson vehicles were imported into Australia in 1913 by Brisbane company McGhie Motor Company.[43] In 1915 the Sydney branch of Dalgety & Co. Ltd became the distributor of Hudson and Essex vehicles for New South Wales. The company was also the agent for Wolseley, Daimler, and Buick passenger vehicles as well as Lacre and Halley commercial vehicles.[44] Motor bodies were produced by Messrs Henderson, Boulton, and Kirkham in Regent Street, Sydney. The company also did trimming, fitting, painting, mechanical work, and repairs.[45] Established in 1922, Sydney company Smith & Waddington set up motor vehicle body building operations for NSW and Queensland at premises on Parramatta Road, Camperdown. The company built "custom" car bodies which, by the terminology of the day, meant "built to an individual order and to a special design." In addition to Hudson and Essex for Dalgety, the company built vehicle bodies for Rolls-Royce, Wolseley, Dort, Benz, Fiat, and Tercat Mery.[46] After a slump which caused operations to cease in November 1927, Smith & Waddington resumed production in June 1928, again building for Hudson and Essex for NSW and Queensland, and further adding Dodge, Chrysler, Erskine, and Studebaker for the whole of Australia.[47][48] Additionally, Sydney coach builder G.H Olding & Sons are known to have built 6 Terraplane phaetons for Dalgety & Co. in 1934. In 1926 a new company, Leader Motors Limited was formed to be the exclusive distributor of Hudson and Essex motor vehicles in Queensland. The bodies were made by South Australian company Holden's Motor Body Builders in Brisbane.[49] (In its home town of Adelaide, Holden's made motor bodies for Austin, Buick, Chevrolet, Cleveland, Dodge, Fiat, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Overland, Reo, Studebaker, and Willys Knight.)[50] Hudson and Essex assembly began in Victoria by Neal's Motors of Port Melbourne in 1927. The contract to build the bodies was initially given to TJ Richards & Sons of Keswick, Adelaide to supply for Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania as well as acting as a second source of supply for New South Wales and Queensland.[51][52][53] Holden's Motor Body Builders also built bodies. Holden's records show that for 1927 the Adelaide plant built a total 1641 Essex vehicles and 8 Hudsons, and for 1928 the plant built 1931 Essex vehicles and 59 Hudsons. 1928 would be Holden's final year for Hudson and Essex production, and in 1931 the company was bought out by General Motors.[54] In February 1934 Ruskins Body Works of West Melbourne secured the contract to build Hudson and Terraplane bodies for the whole of Australia.[55] In June 1937 Neal's Motors celebrated assembling its 30,000th automobile: a 1937 Hudson Terraplane.[56] In 1939 Dalgety & Co. sold their automotive business to Sydney company and agent for Packard motor vehicles,[57] Ira L. & A.C Berk Pty Ltd which thereafter became the distributors for Hudson in NSW and QLD.[58][59] The company opened a manufacturing plant in Belmore, Sydney in February, 1949.[60] After the end of World War II, Australia legislated to restrict the use of U.S. dollars which were in desperately short supply. The use of U.S. dollars to import cars thereafter required a government permit restricting the purchase of American cars only to those with access to U.S. funds held overseas such as consular staff and visiting entertainers. Despite this, Australian distributors of Hudson, Nash, Packard and Studebaker were able to bring in limited numbers of US-built, factory right-hand-drive vehicles from 1946.[61] Dunlop Rubber Company released a report in 1949 about Australian car sales for the period of 1932 to 1949 in which it reported that Hudson vehicles (including Essex and Terraplane) numbered 10,424 units for the 17-year period, coming in at 13th place overall. It was noted in the report generally that all marques in Australia experienced the greatest number of sales prior to World War II.[62] In 1960, six years after the merger of Hudson and Nash-Kelvinator to form American Motors Corporation, Australian Motor Industries (AMI) of Port Melbourne would form an agreement with AMC to assemble Ramblers in Australia.[63] Canadian assembly of Hudson vehicles commenced in 1932 by Hudson Motors of Canada in Tilbury, Ontario. The factory building was owned by Canadian Top & Body Co. which built the motor bodies for the vehicles. The first models assembled were a series of Hudson Eights. World War II interrupted operations and production ceased in 1941. Post-war operations resumed in 1950, with Hudsons being assembled by CHATCO Steel Products in Tilbury, Ontario.[64] Operations ceased in 1954 following the Nash-Hudson merger that lead to the formation of American Motors Corporation. Toronto-based Nash Motors of Canada Ltd. became American Motors (Canada) Ltd. and all subsequent AMC operations continued in Toronto.[65] Hudson and Essex vehicles were assembled in Berlin, Germany during the 1920s by Hudson Essex Motors Company m.b.H Berlin-Spandau.[66] The cars were built with the speedometer in kilometers, while the fuel, oil, and temperature gauges remained in their original non-metric units.[67] Hudson and Essex vehicles were imported into New Zealand by Dominion Motors of Wellington which began operations in 1912. After Dominion Motors amalgamated with Universal Motor Company of Christchurch in 1919[68] the company became the distributor for not only Hudson and Essex, but also Oldsmobile, Crossley, Chevrolet, Stutz, Rolls-Royce, and (pre-GM) Vauxhall. Vehicles were assembled and finished in-house from partial knock-down kits. For South Island, Hudson and Essex vehicles were imported by W.G. Vining Limited of Nelson, beginning in 1912. Vining had built a 31,500 square feet (2,926.5 square meters) garage in 1908 which was the largest garage in New Zealand at the time. A car assembly plant was established at the premises and shortly thereafter Vinings obtained licenses to import and assemble Cadillac, Maxwell, Haynes, and Ford vehicles from the United States; Bean cars from the United Kingdom; and Darracq and Unic vehicles from France. Along with Hudson and Essex, the plant later assembled Chevrolet and Rover vehicles. The business ceased when it was sold on 30th September 1927 upon W.G. Vining's retirement.[69] Vining's son formed a new business, P. Vining & Scott, and continued the Hudson and Essex franchise, adding Morris in 1932.[70] New Zealand car sales for the first nine months of 1927 saw Essex in third place with 898 vehicles sold, behind Chevrolet in second place with 1,100 vehicles sold, and Ford in first place with 1651 vehicles sold. Hudson made 12th place with 206 sales.[71] From 1935, Hudson vehicles (along with Nash, Studebaker, and Standard) were assembled by Christchurch company Motor Assemblies Limited. Production ended when the company was acquired by Standard-Triumph International in 1954.[72] From 1954 Hudson vehicles were built for the New Zealand market by Auckland company VW Motors as a secondary line to the Volkswagens they assembled. After the Hudson and Nash marques were dropped by AMC, VW Motors assembled AMC's new Rambler motor vehicles at its new Otahuhu Volkswagen plant from 1958 until 1962.[73][74] AMC formed an agreement in 1963 with Campbell Motor Industries (CMI) of Thames to assemble Ramblers, production of which ran from 1964 until 1971. Beginning in the 1920s, Hudson and Willys motor vehicles were assembled in South Africa from right-hand-drive complete knock-down (CKD) kits sourced from Canada by Stanley Motors at their plant, National Motor Assemblers (NMA), in Natalspruit (Gauteng).[16] After World War II, NMA, built Austin, Standard, and Triumph vehicles at different times. After the Hudson and Nash merger, NMA continued to assemble AMC Ramblers until 1967.[75] Hudsons were introduced to the United Kingdom in 1911. No shipments were possible during the First World War but as soon as the Armistice was signed exports resumed to the U.K. Hudsons and Essex vehicles were sold through ten concessionaires. In 1922 Hudson-Essex Motors of Great Britain Limited was formed, with new premises on Dordrecht Road, in Acton Vale.[76] Over 100 agents were appointed to sell the vehicles resulting in 2,000 sales in the next 12 months. In 1926 a factory was built on 4½ acres of ground on the recently opened Great West Road in Brentford.[77] The plant opened in 1927 and a year later a three-story building was built as a service department for Hudson and Essex vehicles. The factory assembled the vehicle chassis locally but the bodies were imported as complete units from Detroit. From 1932, the bodies came over from the United States in sections to be assembled at the Great West Road factory. After the Essex marque was retired in 1932 the British company was renamed Hudson Motors Ltd.[78] Hudson's new Terraplane model was equally as popular in the U.K as it was in the United States. English-designed and built bodies were built on the Terraplane frames and the cars were even entered in a number of races including the Monte Carlo Rally. Some of the cars entered were driven by personnel from the Great West Road factory. A Hudson Pacemaker won first place in the 1931 Scottish Rally, and another Pacemaker took 7th place in the 1932 Torquay Rally. The Team Award was won by two Terraplane tourers and a Terraplane saloon in the 1933 Scottish Rally.[79] Because of the Hudson-Essex factory, the Chiswick roundabout (the junction of Chiswick High Road, North Circular Road, South Circular Road and the Great West Road) became known as "Hudson's Corner." After the Hudson and Nash merger, the British company was renamed Rambler Motors (A.M.C.) Limited in 1966[80] and became an importer of American Motors Corporation vehicles well into the 1970s. For the 1970 model year, American Motors revived the "Hornet" model name for its new series of compact cars (the AMC Hornet). AMC was later purchased by Chrysler, which at one time considered reintroducing the Hornet name in the Dodge model line (See: Dodge Hornet). The last Hudson dealership was Miller Motors in Ypsilanti, Michigan,[81] which is now part of the Ypsilanti Automotive Heritage Museum. The Hostetler Hudson Auto Museum in Shipshewana, Indiana features a collection of restored Hudsons.[82] Eldon Hostetler was an inventor who owned a Hudson as a teenager and later purchased Hudson cars and restored them.[83] A restored Hudson Dealership sign still occupies its original site on Highway 32 in Chico, California.[84] The 2006 film, Disney/Pixar's Cars, features a character named Doc Hudson, represented as a 1951 Hudson Hornet. The Hermes, a recurring car model featured in Rockstar Games' Grand Theft Auto video game series, is based on the 1951 Hudson Hornet. Coordinates: 42°22′21″N 82°57′33″W / 42.372380°N 82.959123°W / 42.372380; -82.959123

Faro Airport

Faro Airport (Portuguese: Aeroporto Internacional de Faro) (IATA: FAO, ICAO: LPFR), also known as Algarve Airport, is located 4 km (2.5 mi) to the west[5] of Faro in Portugal. The airport opened in July 1965.[6] A total of 9.0 million passengers used Faro Airport in 2019. The airport became a hub for the first time in March 2010, when Ryanair decided to base seven of its aircraft there.[7] It is very busy from March to October, to the extent that it becomes a slot coordinated airport.[8] Faro Airport is capable of handling nine million passengers a year (2019). There are 22 stands of which 16 are remote, with 60 check-in desks and 36 boarding gates.[8] Since its opening in 1966, Faro Airport has had two major developments: the new passenger terminal building in 1989, and its enlargement in 2001. Faced with growing traffic demand and passenger safety and satisfaction needs, the development plan for 2009–2013 saw Faro Airport undergo extensive improvements to runway and infrastructure, as well as a widespread renovation of the airport terminal and commercial areas.[9] Along with the airports in Lisbon, Porto, Ponta Delgada, Santa Maria, Horta, Flores, Madeira, and Porto Santo, the airport's concessions to provide support to civil aviation were conceded to ANA Aeroportos de Portugal on 18 December 1998, under provisions of decree 404/98. With this concession, ANA became responsible for the planning, development and construction of future infrastructure.[10] The following airlines operate regular scheduled direct passenger flights at Faro Airport: The airport is close to the A22 highway, with connections throughout the Algarve and direct to Lisbon and Spain. Faro Airport has 3 different car parking areas. The closest parking area is called "Parking P0 / P1 – Classic", used for short-term visitors, while parking areas P2 and P3 are used for longer term car storage.[21] Kiss and Fly is the name for a form of fast parking at the airport. One can drive to the airport to pick up or drop someone off free of charge for up to ten minutes. To drop off passengers, one can stop at the departures curbside and to pick up passengers, you enter the P2 Car Park.[22] Airport bus routes 14 and 16 run each day between Faro Airport and Faro city centre bus station. From the bus station there are connections to most other Portuguese cities as well as to many Spanish destinations. The airport bus route is currently run by a company called "Proximo". The nearest railway station is Faro station which is about 5.7 kilometres (3.5 mi) away and is located close to Faro city centre bus station.[23] A study into a rail link to the airport was undertaken in 2018.[24] Public taxis are available from the airport and operate 24/7. There are several taxi ranks which you can use to hire a taxi from, or you can use a free phone inside the airport to call a taxi. The majority of curbsidetaxis at the airport will only carry up to four passengers; if you require a bigger taxi, it is best to use to the phone inside. There are all major car rental companies, in the arrivals area, that can provide car hire service from the Airport. Companies without an airport desk are located at "Parking P4 - Car Hire". In 2012, Airports Council International gave Faro Airport the title of Best Improvement in Europe.[25][circular reference] Media related to Faro Airport at Wikimedia Commons

Walter Gotell

Walter Jack Gotell (15 March 1924 – 5 May 1997) was a German actor, known for his role as General Gogol, head of the KGB, in the Roger Moore-era of the James Bond film series,[2] as well as having played the role of Morzeny, a villain, in From Russia With Love. He also appeared as Gogol in the final part of The Living Daylights (1987), Timothy Dalton's first Bond film. Gotell was born in Bonn; his family emigrated to Britain after the arrival of Nazism in Germany. A fluent English speaker, he started in films as early as 1943, usually playing German villain officer, such as in We Dive at Dawn (1943). He began to have more established roles by the early 1950s, starring in The African Queen (1951), The Red Beret (1953) for Albert R. Broccoli, Ice Cold in Alex (1958), The Guns of Navarone (1961), The Road to Hong Kong (1962), Lord Jim (1965), Black Sunday (1977), The Boys from Brazil (1978) and Cuba (1979). His first role in the James Bond film series was in 1963, when he played the henchman Morzeny in From Russia with Love. From the late 1970s, he played the recurring role of General Gogol in the series, beginning with The Spy Who Loved Me (1977). Gotell gained the role of KGB General Anatol Gogol because of his resemblance to the former head of Soviet secret police Lavrentiy Beria. The character returned in Moonraker (1979), For Your Eyes Only (1981), Octopussy (1983), A View to a Kill (1985), and The Living Daylights (1987). As the Cold War neared its end, the role of leader of the KGB was seen to change attitudes to the West – from direct competitor to collaborator. Gotell is one of a few actors to have played a villain and a Bond ally in the film series (others being Charles Gray, Richard Kiel and Joe Don Baker). Throughout his career, Gotell also made numerous guest appearances in television series including Danger Man, Knight Rider, The A-Team, Airline, Airwolf, The X-Files, Scarecrow and Mrs. King, MacGyver, Star Trek: The Next Generation, Miami Vice, Cagney & Lacey and The Saint among others. He played Chief Constable Cullen in Softly, Softly: Taskforce (1969–75). Gotell was a businessman as well as an actor, and used his acting salaries to fund his business interests. He had one daughter, Carol, born in 1960. He died on 5 May 1997 in Los Angeles, California, from cancer, at the age of 73.

Mercedes-Benz S-Class

The Mercedes-Benz S-Class, formerly known as Sonderklasse (German for "special class", abbreviated as "S-Klasse"), is a series of full-size luxury sedans, limousines and armored sedans produced by the German automaker Mercedes-Benz, a division of German company Daimler AG. The S-Class is the designation for top-of-the-line Mercedes-Benz models and was officially introduced in 1972 with the W116, and has remained in use ever since. The S-Class is the flagship vehicle for Mercedes-Benz. The S-Class has debuted many of the company's latest innovations, including drivetrain technologies, interior features, and safety systems (such as the first seatbelt pretensioners).[5] The S-Class has ranked as the world's best-selling luxury sedan,[6] and its next generation, the W223 S-Class, will premiere in 2020. As in previous iterations, the W223 S-Class will be avaliable in standard and long-wheelbase versions; I4, I6, V6, V8, V12, diesel and hybrid powertrains will be offered, along with an electric version, called the EQS. All models sold in North America are available in long wheelbase only. In automotive terms, Sonderklasse refers to "a specially outfitted car." Although used colloquially for decades,[citation needed] following its official application in 1972, six generations of officially named S-Klasse sedans have been produced. Previous two-door coupe models of the S-Class were known as SEC and later S-Coupe. In 1996 the S-Class coupe was spun off in a separate line as the CL-Class, however as of June 2014, it has been re-designated as the S-Class Coupé for the 2015 model year, doing away with the CL-Class. In 2016, the S-Class Cabriolet, internally named A217, was introduced with three variants: the S 550 Cabriolet, the Mercedes-AMG S 63 Cabriolet with 4Matic, and the Mercedes-AMG S 65 Cabriolet. [7] The Mercedes-Maybach S 650 Cabriolet, based on the S 65 Cabriolet, was announced in 2016.[8] Mercedes-Benz stopped manufacturing the S-Class Coupe and Cabriolet in 2020. In 1993, when the W202 was introduced as C-Class, the traditional naming convention (numbers, plus letters) was reversed, with a leading letter identifying the line (As of late 2017, A, B, C, CLA, CLS, E, G, GLA, GLB, GLC, GLE, GLS, S, SL, SLC, V and X are in active use). From then on, the long-wheelbase models (formerly "SEL") and the regular-length models (formerly "SE") are both labeled with the prefix of "S" regardless of length. For example, both 500SE and 500SEL are now labeled as S500/S500L, with fuel injection being standard on these models. The W221 S-Class has been available in four trim levels; the numbers are given in ascending order to denote more upscale models (e.g. S500 (S550 for US)/S600/S63 AMG/S65 AMG etc.). In official Mercedes-Benz publications and on vehicle nameplates, a space between the letter and numbers is customary (e.g. S 600). The W180 line debuted in 1954, and is the first lineup of "Ponton" models retroactively associated with the Mercedes-Benz S-Class.[citation needed] The W180 featured six-cylinder sedan, coupé, and convertible models, and was produced until 1957. The later W128 lineup, introduced in the mid-to-late 1950s, was the last to be associated with the "Ponton" name. It featured the 220a, 219 (W105), 220S, and 220SE models (sedan, coupé, and cabriolet) powered by a 2.2L straight-6, and came to ten. The "Ponton" designation referred to its unibody construction, with the era's rounded fenders a stylistic feature on the W180/W128 models. The "Ponton" lineup included four- and six-cylinder models, but only the six-cylinder W180 and W128 lines are considered part of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class chronology, as they were the most powerful "Ponton" versions available. Both "Ponton" models were Mercedes' first without a conventional frame, using a unitized body/frame construction. Mercedes Benz Fintail (German: Heckflosse) is an informal nickname given to Mercedes Benz vehicles notable for the presence of tailfins. Though never officially designated as such - Mercedes-Benz claimed they were functional and designated them Peilstege, assisting to mark the end of the car in the rear view mirror. The Fintail series replaced the Ponton series. The exterior was designed for the European and North American markets. The W111 was a chassis code given to its top-range vehicles, including four-door sedans, produced from 1959 to 1968, and two-door coupes and cabriolets from 1961 to 1971. The W111, was initially attributed only to six-cylinder cars with 2.2-litre engines. The luxury version with big-block 3-litre engines were given the chassis code W112. The entry-level vehicles with four-cylinder engines were called W110. All three versions W110, W111, and W112, in both two- and four-door bodies, were built on an identical chassis. The updated and larger W108/W109 model lines were introduced in 1965. The squarish W108 line included the straight-six M129 engine powered 250S, 250SE, 280S 280SE and 280SEL. In 1968 the 300 SEL 6.3 borrowed the 6-litre V8 from the W100 600 Pullman to offer a truly high-performance luxury sedan. During this period, the designation S (for "Sedan") was used for standard carburated short-wheelbase models; an E (for "Einspritzung", German for fuel-injection) was added to the 250SE, 280SE and 300SE. Long-wheelbase models gained an L (for "Lang", German for "long"), reflecting an extra 10 centimetres (3.9 in) added in the rear passenger compartment. Since the advent of the W108 series, the Mercedes-Benz S-Class has always included two wheelbase lengths, although not all wheelbases are sold in every country. The more powerful 300SE and 300SEL models were classified as the W109 chassis, with front and rear air suspension (rather than the coil spring based W108 rear suspension), and available burl walnut interior trim, automatic transmission, and power windows. In 1968, the W108 line dropped the 250SE in favor of the larger-engined 280S and 280SEL; the 250S remained as an entry model until 1969; the 300SE/SEL yielded their 3.0 litre inline-6 for the intermediate SL type (W113) 2.8 litre engine, and were later offered with a 3.5-litre V8 engine (in both the SE and SEL form, not in the U.S.) and 4.5-litre (U.S. only) and 6.3-litre V8 engines (in the SEL model only). The W108/109 lines, which eventually supplanted the W111 lines, were never available with four-cylinder engines. In 1972, Mercedes-Benz introduced the W116 line, the first to be officially called the S-Class.[9] Produced from 1972 through 1980, the W116 series featured a four-wheel independent suspension and disc brakes. The 280, 350, and 450 (4.5L version) models featured SE and SEL versions. Production of the W116 totaled 473,035 units. This was a groundbreaking sedan for Mercedes-Benz, and for the first time in the company history, the car had an obvious, blatant and outward emphasis on safety placed above a pure styling viewpoint. The overall design incorporated numerous safety features developed from the "safety research vehicles" in the mid-to-late 1960s to the very early 1970s. These safety features were all newly introduced passenger-car "firsts" on a production vehicle: padded door trim around the windows, heavily padded steering wheel (later to be replaced by an airbag with the Mercedes-Benz abbreviation of SRS standing for the English-language term Supplemental Restraint System), more comprehensive safety padding on the dashboard and around the interior, dual asymmetric windshield wipers, headrests with a center depression to locate the occupant's head in a more central position during a rear impact, a rain-water management system to improve visibility consisting of deep channels on both sides of the windshield and flowing into deeply channeled rain gutters, including similar designs on the side mirrors, rounded body shapes along the edges, such as the tops of the front fenders, etc., designed to ameliorate pedestrian injuries, ribbed rear taillamp lenses which would remain clearer of dirt on the recessed areas, an easy-to-access first aid kit stowed in a recessed compartment on the rear parcel shelf prominently labeled with the universally recognized "cross" symbol which represents "first aid", and several other subtle safety features related to both active and passive safety. The Mercedes Benz S-Class is a classic chauffeur driven car,[10] and has frequently been used as standard by car hire companies. It is comfortable and safe as well as elegant looking; ideal for drives across the countryside or high class transport on a night out. The W116 models were large luxury sedans. The W116 was larger on the outside than the W108/W109 series it replaced, but had similar interior capacity, as the additional bulk was driven by several new and aforementioned engineering developments on car safety and occupant protection in a crash. The W116 introduced other improved passive safety features into the vehicle design, including a strengthened vehicle occupant shell. It was one of the first cars to be available with ABS, a driver's airbag supplemental restraint system (but not available at the vehicle's initial launch). Also, the W116 was the first mass production passenger vehicle offered with a turbocharged diesel engine. The 450SE, then the most powerful model in the W116 lineup, was awarded European Car of the Year in 1974. At the New England Auto Show in 1972 held in the fall season in Boston, the Monroney Label of a 1973 450SE was right at $13,000. 1973 was the first model year of the W116 for the US market. Starting in 1975, the W116 was upgraded with a new fuel injection system to comply with revised exhaust emission standards in European markets. A slight power reduction was a result of this update, but in 1978, a series of further engine upgrades restored original performance levels under the new fuel injection systems. Between 1973 and 1977, 997 Special Edition W116 models were made on order by Mercedes. These cars incorporated stronger body paneling and suspension and was 50 kg heavier than its normal counterpart. With the W116 models, the V8-engines of the 350/450 SE/SEL models were now regular options. Due to the oil crisis, fuel efficiency was the major concern for the engineers, yet they still added also the high-performance, limited-production 450 SEL 6.9. This 8-cylinder model, affectionately referred to as simply "the 6.9", boasted the largest engine installed in a postwar Mercedes-Benz up to that time. Every 450 SEL 6.9 featured a self-leveling hydropneumatic suspension, and offered the ABS anti-lock braking system as an option from 1978 onwards. Also, in the United States and Canada only, Mercedes-Benz introduced the economical but powerful 3.0-liter 5-cylinder turbodiesel OM 617 A producing 85 kW (116 PS; 114 bhp) in 1978, sold as the 300SD. The W126 series premiered in September 1979, launching in March 1980 as a 1980 model and late 1980 as a 1981 model in the US and Australia replacing the W116 line. The W126 line featured improved aerodynamics and enlarged aluminum engine blocks. In Australia in 1981, the W126 S-Class won Wheels magazine's Car of the Year award. The W126 was manufactured from 1979 through 1991 with a mid-cycle update. Coupé models based on the S-Class were reintroduced with the W126 (380/500 SEC). Total sales of the W126 S-Class sedans reached 818,036 units, with an additional 74,060 coupes sold. In December 1980, the W126 introduced a driver side airbag, as patented by Mercedes-Benz in 1971, as well as passenger side airbags (in 1988), seat-belt pretensioners, and traction control. It was the first production car to feature an airbag standard, and as late as 1991 there were only a few other manufacturers in Europe who offered an airbag. The interior featured additional courtesy and reading lamps, along with heated seats and a more advanced climate control system. A four-speed automatic transmission was standard. Although the top of range Mercedes-Benz 450SEL 6.9 of the previous generation was not directly replaced, the W126 carried forward the hydropneumatic suspension of the 6.9 as an option on the 500SEL. A new cruise control system was offered as well. Succeeding the roadster based coupes, the W126 introduced a two-door variant, the SEC coupé. The W126 S-Class received a mid-cycle update in 1985 that included both exterior modifications and engine upgrades. The powerplants on the W126 S-Class included straight-6 and V8 engines. Most sales came from the diesel model in Europe[citation needed] and straight-six models in the United States[citation needed], although the V8 models were praised by contemporary journalists. During the W126 mid-cycle update in 1986, both the straight-6 and V8 engines were upgraded in several models to different displacement levels (six-cylinder upgraded from 2.8 L to 3.0 L, eight-cylinder upgraded from 3.8 L to 4.2 L, and 5.0 L to 5.6 L). In 1991, the W140 series replaced the W126 line with the first production model assembled in April of that year. The W140 grew in proportions and featured two wheelbase lengths and a shorter-wheelbase W140 coupé. Production totalled 432,732 units.[citation needed] The W140 cost 25% more than the W126 that it replaced and featured double-pane window glazing, self-closing boot lid and doors, electric windows with a jam-protection feature (lowering when encountering an obstruction), rear-parking markers in the US (which appeared on the rear wings when in reverse), and a heating system which emitted warm air while residual energy was available after the engine was turned off. In 1993, Mercedes-Benz model nomenclature was rationalized, with the SE/SEL/SEC cars becoming the S-Class and alphanumerical designations inverted (e.g. the both 500SE and 500SEL became S500 regardless of wheelbase length). In 1995, the W140 received a minor face lift featuring clear turn signal indicator lenses on the front and rear as well as headlamps fitted with separate low- and high-beam reflectors for the US market. Following the mid-year face lift, the W140 coupe and sedan (Saloon) featured Electronic Stability Control. This particular generation of S-class is heavily referred to or nicknamed as the Mercedes "Shabah/شبح"(Meaning ghost when translated) in many Middle Eastern countries. In July 1998, the W220 was presented. The W220 S-Class was restyled due to an update on previous models or new cars released compared to its W140 predecessor. Unlike its predecessor, the W220 was not the first model to feature the company's new design theme for the next generation of Mercedes-Benz. This honour was given to the W168 A-Class when it launched in 1997. The new S-Class incorporated the new styling cues first introduced on the Mk I A-Class the year before (for example, the dashboard carried over the new styling details first seen in the A-Class), with a renewed focus on elegance and style in a more rounded shape compared to the preceding W140. Despite being smaller, the W220 S-Class offered more interior space than the W140. Production of the W220 S-Class totaled 485,000 units, slightly more than the production totals from the W140. The W220 was produced in a sedan version only.[11] As with each new S-Class, the W220 brought in innovations such as Airmatic air suspension and Active Ventilated Seats (which used miniature fans in the seats to move air through perforations). A navigation system with center console-mounted screen display was introduced, along with the COMAND input control system. Other options included keyless entry and ignition, a radar-controlled Distronic cruise control system and a cylinder shut-off system called Active Cylinder Control. The 4MATIC all-wheel drive system was introduced to the North America market S-Class for 2003, complementing the traditional rear-wheel drive configurations. In 2003, Mercedes launched the S63 AMG, the first ever performance model of the S-Class. It featured a 6.5 litre V8 engine through a 7-speed brand new gearbox, it made 450 hp, and was brilliant to drive. While Consumer Reports classified the W220 model's reliability as "poor," its lowest rating, and declared it one of the "least reliable luxury cars,"[12] Edmunds gave the S-Class a 5 out of 5 reliability rating[13] and MSN Autos assign an expert rating of 9.0 out of 10.[14] By March 2011, Consumer Reports had changed its reliability ratings for the 2001 and 2002 S-Class as having improved to "average". Build quality was generally considered to be good. For instance, Forbes described the W220 S500 as "built remarkably well."[15] Early W220s in 1999 were recalled for issues with the trunk spring and the hydraulic fuel line; there were no recalls for the 2005 or 2006 model years. In 2002, Mercedes-Benz introduced the world's first preemptive safety system on the W220 with its first iteration of Pre-Safe. The W220 S-Class received an exterior refresh with updates to the front fascia. The grille angle was adjusted to a slightly more upright position, and the xenon-discharge headlamps were given a new transparent housing, replacing the earlier opaque versions. The front bumper's lower air intakes were also restyled. In 2005, the S-Class was the first vehicle to receive a TÜV Institute environmental certificate from the German Commission on Technical Compliance for environmentally friendly components.[16] The W220 was available with more engine options than the W126 or W140. The range started with smaller 2.8 (Singapore) then 3.2L 167 kW (227 PS; 224 bhp) V6 motor, which was superseded by an enlarged 3.7 L 183 kW (248 PS; 245 bhp) V6 in the S350. The S430 was powered by a 4.3 L 208 kW (283 PS; 279 bhp) V8 and the S500 was powered by a 5.0 L 228 kW (310 PS; 306 bhp) V8. The S55 AMG was outfitted with a supercharged 5.4 L 368 kW (500 PS; 493 bhp) V8 motor, the S55 AMG 2000/2001 was outfitted with the naturally aspirated 5.4 L 270 kW (360 PS; 360 bhp) V8 motor. The S600 was outfitted with a 5.5 L 368 kW (500 PS; 493 bhp) M275 V12 twin turbo engine, the S600 2000/2001 was outfitted with the naturally aspirated M137 5.8 L 274 kW (372 PS; 367 bhp) V12 engine. For one month in 2001, AMG produced the S63 AMG, which was sold in very limited numbers. The S63 was powered by a 6.3 L 331 kW (450 PS; 444 bhp) V12. An undisclosed number of them were sold exclusively through AMG in European and Asian markets. In 2004, Mercedes-Benz produced a limited version of elongated S600 facelift models featuring AMG body styling and S-Class Pullman interior options as a luxurious alternative to the shorter wheel based S65 AMG. Powered by a 6.0 L 456 kW (620 PS; 612 bhp) V12 twin turbo motor, the S65 was the most powerful S-Class, as well as the world's most powerful production sedan of the era. The S65 had a 0 to 97 km/h (0 to 60 mph) time of 4.2 seconds (conservative MB estimate) and an owner-tested time of 3.8 seconds and could reach 160 km/h (100 mph) under 9 seconds. Furthermore, an ECU software upgrade can result in the engine producing 550 kW (750 PS; 740 bhp) and over 1,150 N⋅m (850 lb⋅ft) of torque. 3.0 L diesel 190 kW (259 PS; 255 bhp) V6 3.5 L 225 kW (306 PS; 302 bhp) V6 3.5 L hybrid 220 kW (299 PS; 295 bhp) V6 4.0 L diesel 236 kW (320 PS; 316 bhp) V8 4.7 L 250 kW (340 PS; 335 bhp) V8 4.7 L 320 kW (435 PS; 429 bhp) V8 5.5 L 285 kW (387 PS; 382 bhp) V8 5.5 L 380 kW (520 PS; 510 bhp) V12 5.5 L AMG 400 kW (543 PS; 536 bhp) V8 6.0 L AMG 463 kW (630 PS; 621 bhp) V12 The all-new W221 was introduced in the autumn of 2005 at the Frankfurt International Motor Show, with sales starting in autumn of 2005 and export to other markets beginning in 2006. Again there was a big change in design. The W221 S-Class made its North American premiere at the 2006 North American International Auto Show in January. The W221 is slightly larger in all dimensions than its predecessor, and it features three newly developed engines with up to 26% power increase. The interior is completely new, all materials have been upgraded and make for a more luxurious ride, and the center console transmission gear lever has been replaced with a column-mounted shifter. New technological features on the W221 include an infrared Night View Assist feature and the latest Mercedes-Benz pre-collision system. The W221 features sharper exterior styling (most notably wide fender arcs) and technological improvements. The W221 is the second consecutive generation of the S-Class to be solely produced in a sedan body style. Models sold in North America are the S450 (2008– , SWB and Canada only), S400 Hybrid (2010– ), S350 Bluetec 4MATIC (2012- ), S550, S600, S63 AMG and S65 AMG; other models to be sold outside North America include the S280, S350, S300, S420 CDI and S320 CDI. The first W221 model released in North America and Japan was the S550 (called S500 outside North America and Japan), with the S600 arriving in the following spring.[17][18] In the US for the 2010 model year, the S-Class received a facelift across the entire model line in mid-2009. Daytime LED running lights were fitted to the outer edges of the bi-xenon lamp units. The rear end was accented with a total of 52 distinctively arranged LEDs in the two taillights. Gone are the body-colored strips through the tail lamps. Other noticeable changes at the front of the car are a more pronounced arrow-shaped grille, plus a new front bumper with a light-catching contour and a chrome strip below the cooling air intakes. New, sleeker rear-view door mirrors with LED turn signals were also added. Exhaust tailpipes of all S-Class variants were visibly integrated into the rear bumper. The wheels were updated to more modern-style ones. Also new is a S400 Hybrid version. Safety also improved on most Mercedes Benz models, with the orange-colored light reflectors mounted on the side of the bumpers. Also, before it was updated it had a C-Class look at the front. Afterwards it disappeared. Also, some shiny chrome is added to the bottom of the doors and bumper.[19] In terms of performance, the S550 completes the 0-100km/h run in just 5.4 seconds. Despite having a weight of 2,304 kg (5,079 lb), the S65 AMG still makes 0-100km/h (0-60mph) in just 4.2 seconds.[20] The S600 makes the same sprint in about 4.6 seconds. The brakes continue to become more advanced with the new Brake Assist Plus system monitoring for an impending collision and increasing braking if needed, while the Distronic Plus radar guided cruise control can now bring the car to a complete stop.[21] This system works in outdoor conditions; a test demonstration by Mercedes-Benz in a crash-test hall resulted in embarrassment for the company when a new S-Class crashed into the back of a stationary W220 S-Class. This incident was later attributed to the radar system malfunctioning inside the radar-reflective (i.e. radar-confusing) steel test building where the event was filmed.[22] Upscale department store Saks Fifth Avenue offered 20 special-edition S600 sedans for sale in its 2005 Christmas catalog. All 20 cars, priced at US$145,000 each, sold on November 22, 2005 in under seven minutes. The Saks-edition S600 sedans were finished in a mocha black exterior with an almond beige interior and were the first examples of the S600 to be sold to private owners. The S600s came with nearly every option standard. In 2007, Automobile Magazine named the W221 S-Class as one of its 2007 "All-Stars" over rivals from Lexus and BMW,[23] and Car and Driver selected the S550 as the winner in a five-way comparison test of flagship luxury sedans,[24] as did Motor Trend Magazine in July 2009 in a three way comparison test, with the other two competitors being the BMW 750Li, and Audi A8L 4.2 Quattro. The W221 S-Class was also the recipient of several other motoring awards (see following). Officially unveiled in May 2013, the newest S-Class has a more streamlined appearance than the outgoing model. Some interesting features include a large front grille inspired by the F700 Concept car and LED lights used exclusively inside and out – a first in the automotive industry. Two strong converging character lines give the flanks a more sculpted look, while integrated exhaust tips and a large glass roof (likely optional) highlight the design. Along with the sedan, the S-Class spawned a coupe (Mercedes-Benz C217) and convertible (Mercedes-Benz A217) as well as an extended-wheelbase 'Pullman' variant, longer than the long-wheelbase 'L.' While the short-wheelbase model carries chassis code W222, the long-wheelbase model uses chassis code V222. Unlike with previous generations, Mercedes focused primarily on the development of the longer model as many customers in the fast-growing Asian markets prefer to be chauffeured.[26] In 2016 Mercedes W222 was the last car with an S65 AMG engine. Inside, almost every surface is covered by a 'luxury' material – everything that looks like leather is genuine leather and metal is used rather than any plastic alternative. The instrument cluster consists entirely of two widescreens (30.5  cm diagonal) LCD displays with animated graphics. A 'Head-Up' display and gesture responsive touchpad became options in early 2014. It featured a new infotainment system. The W222 debuts the available Magic Body Control, consisting of a windshield mounted stereo cameras that can 'read' the road ahead (Road Surface Scan) and communicate with the Active Body Control suspension to ready it for an uneven road surface.[27] Initially available only on 8-cylinder models and above, Magic Ride Control attempts to isolate the car's body by predicting rather than reacting to broken pavement and speed humps. Available luxury appointments over and above what was offered in the W221 include a choice of massage type for each seat occupant (the W221 offered various intensities of a single massage type) and two levels of premium audio from the luxury German brand, Burmester. The W222 has driver assistance systems aboard that allow it to steer a course within a lane and follow a leading vehicle for a short period (DISTRONIC PLUS with Steering Assist, also called traffic jam assistant). It will also slow or come to a dead stop and accelerate in response to traffic ahead. Mercedes engineers claim to have, under controlled conditions, ridden aboard a W222 S Class that has driven autonomously for 50  km, merely by altering parameters controlling equipment already fitted. Such modifications are not available to the general public. Like the W221 S500, the W222 S-Class will be powered by a more powerful twin-turbo V8 producing 455 hp (339 kW) while the S600 will carry a twin-turbo V12. There is also a diesel-powered S350 BlueTEC version, a hybrid S400 with a 20-kilowatt (27 PS; 27 hp) electric motor and 228 kW (310 PS; 306 bhp) V6 engine, a diesel-electric hybrid S300 BlueTEC. A S500 Plug-in Hybrid was later introduced at the Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA) with a market release of 2014 and claimed a 3 l/100 km (94 mpg‑imp; 78 mpg‑US) mileage, a CO2 rating of 69 g/km (3.9 oz/mi) and up to 30 km (19 mi) of emissions free driving. The S500 Plug-In hybrid is fitted with a 245 kW (334 PS; 329 bhp) 3-litre V6 and an 80-kilowatt (110 PS; 110 hp) electric motor.[28][29] AMG fettled S63 (V8 bi-turbo) and S65 (V12 bi-turbo) LWB sedans are also on offer. All S-Class models will come with a 7-speed automatic transmission.[30] Historically, the engineering of the S-Class was claimed[by whom?] to have been designed without regard to cost, a practice which continued unfettered up through the W140 line.[citation needed] The company in turn has been able to exploit this as a marketing tool, culminating in its onetime slogan, "engineered like no other car in the world." This slogan was used throughout the 1980s with the marketing of the W126 S-Class. However, following the formation of DaimlerChrysler and the cessation of engineer-sanctioned overbudgeting in the late 1990s, this slogan was dropped. The subsequent W220 model S-Class were reported to suffer from relatively lower reliability and quality rates to previous models.[31] The W223 will be unveiled on 2 September 2020.[32] This generation will not feature a coupe or convertible model, as they will instead be replaced by the next generation AMG GT and SL-Class models respectively.[33] The interior of the new model will include up to five new displays, AR Head Up Display, and an ambient lighting system .[34][35] Also, the S-Class is the first car in the world to come with rear seat airbags that use ambient air, instead of gas that is widely used in automotive airbag systems. An electric version called the EQS is available from 2021. In the 1980s, Mercedes-Benz built the world's first driverless cars using the S-Class, together with the team of Professor Ernst Dickmanns at Bundeswehr Universität München.[36] The culmination of this effort was achieved in 1995, when Dickmanns' re-engineered autonomous S-Class robot completed a trip from Munich, Bavaria to Copenhagen, Denmark and back. On the autobahn, the robot S-Class achieved speeds exceeding 175 km/h (109 mph). It suggested and executed overtaking maneuvers. The car's abilities left a big impression on many observers, and is said to have heavily influenced robot car research and funding decisions worldwide. A concept future hybrid, the F700 research car, was also unveiled at the 2007 Frankfurt Motor Show.[37] The F700 featured three regular opening doors and a fourth door capable of 180-degree rotation. The concept also featured bulletproof and puncture-resistant tires. Mercedes-Benz has traditionally introduced its safety innovations in the S-Class. For instance, the S-Class was the first car in Europe to incorporate airbags and three point seatbelts. S-Class safety features included innovations in active safety (accident avoidance), passive safety (collision protection), and holistic safety (integration of both active and passive safety features). Active safety features include: ABS braking in 1978[38] (acts to reduce braking distances and improve stopping control; co-developed with Bosch); traction control and Electronic Stability Program (ESP) in 1995[38] (improves driver control during difficult road conditions); and Brake Assist (provides full braking power during emergency stops). In 2005, a new infrared night vision feature was introduced (improves visibility during nighttime conditions). Despite the popular misconception, the S-Class was not the first car fitted with ABS braking technology, although some credit can be given for popularizing this now largely standard feature (ABS was initially an option on most models of the W126 S-Class). Active lane keeping became standard in 2011.[39] Passive safety features include: crumple zones in 1957 (vehicle body structure absorbs the force of impact); collapsible steering column (prevents the steering column from protruding into the cabin during accidents), strengthened occupant cell enhanced occupant protection during severe impacts (rollovers); pre-accident seatbelt tensioning (tightens seatbelts prior to impact), and sandwich platforms (allows the engine to slide under the occupants in a head-on collision). PRE-SAFE, Mercedes-Benz's holistic safety feature, was introduced on the S-Class in 2002. PRE-SAFE integrates multiple active and passive safety features for a "safety net" approach to vehicle safety by attempting to prevent accidents; if accidents do occur, PRE-SAFE aims to reduce occupant injury. In the latest version of this pre-collision system, PRE-SAFE will prime the brake assist system, lock the doors to prevent accidental opening during the accident, adjust the seats, close the windows and sunroof, and tighten seatbelts during certain types of collisions. In the event an accident results in a roll over, the PRE-SAFE feature unlocks the doors and lowers the windows approximately 1 cm (1⁄2 in) to allow you to exit or safety workers to gain access easily. Road accident statistics on a model-by-model basis from the UK Department of Transport show that the Mercedes-Benz S-Class is one of the safest cars on the UK roads[citation needed] (measured in terms of chance of death in an accident). A special armored version of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class has been produced, known as the S-Guard. Features include the capability to withstand small arms fire and certain explosive devices, a self-sealing fuel tank, and an alarm system.[40] For 2009, Mercedes-Benz launched a long-wheelbase version of the S-Guard, known as the Pullman Guard. This model is 45 cm (18 in) longer than the standard model and also has a higher roof and taller rear window with a different rake.[41] The S-Guard is widely used at the diplomatic level to protect world leaders. Ninety governments worldwide are known to use the S-Guard for transport of government leaders and dignitaries.[42] The S-Guard is built on a special production line at the S-Class facility in Sindelfingen, Germany, with specific S-Guard enhancements integrated at multiple stages throughout the production process.[42] Most S-Class models, including the W221, are built at the Daimler AG plant in Sindelfingen, Germany and at the Mercedes-Benz-Valdez plant in Santiago Tianguistenco, Mexico. Founded by Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft in 1915, the Sindelfingen plant also produced the model 600 "Grosser Mercedes" and past generations of the S-Class.[43] Previous S-Class models (such as the W126) were built in different locations ranging from Stuttgart to South Africa, but with recent models (such as the W220) production has been concentrated in Sindelfingen and Santiago Tianguistenco. In February 2007, DaimlerChrysler Malaysia's (now, Mercedes Benz Malaysia) plant in Pekan, Pahang began production of S350 (model W221) vehicles and is currently assembling S300, S350L and S500L.[44] In all, some 2.7 million S-Class vehicles have been produced in the past forty years.[45] Notable examples of awards received by the Mercedes-Benz S-Class include the top ranking in the J.D. Power Sales Satisfaction Index from 1987 to 1990,[65] seven time ranking as What Car? "Best Luxury Car",[16] and five times as Fleet News "Luxury Car of the Year".[16] The S-Class was Wheels Magazine Car of the Year for 1981 and 1999,[66] U.S. Highway Loss Data Institute "Safest Passenger Car of the Year" in 1988 and 1989,[67] and European Car of the Year in 1974. The S-Class is also the first car ever (2005) to receive an environmental certificate from the German Commission on Technical Compliance (TÜV).[16] Other awards range from Popular Science Best of What's New—Grand Award 2005 to Top Gear magazine's "Limousine of the Year" for 2006.

Train ferry

A Train ferry is a ship (ferry) designed to carry railway vehicles. Typically, one level of the ship is fitted with railway tracks, and the vessel has a door at the front and/or rear to give access to the wharves. In the United States, train ferries are sometimes referred to as "car ferries", as distinguished from "auto ferries" used to transport automobiles. The wharf (sometimes called a "slip") has a ramp, and a linkspan or "apron", balanced by weights, that connects the railway proper to the ship, allowing for the water level to rise and fall with the tides. While railway vehicles can be and are shipped on the decks or in the holds of ordinary ships, purpose-built train ferries can be quickly loaded and unloaded by roll-on/roll-off, especially as several vehicles can be loaded or unloaded at once. A Train ferry that is a barge is called a car float or rail barge. An early Train ferry was established as early as 1833 by the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway. To extend the line over the Forth and Clyde Canal in Scotland, the company began operating a wagon ferry to transport the rolling stock over the canal.[1][2][page needed] In April 1836, the first railroad car ferry in the U.S., Susquehanna, entered service on the Susquehanna River between Havre de Grace and Perryville, Maryland.[2][page needed] The first modern Train ferry was Leviathan, built in 1849. The Edinburgh, Leith and Newhaven Railway was formed in 1842 and the company wished to extend the East Coast Main Line further north to Dundee and Aberdeen. As bridge technology was not yet capable enough to provide adequate support for the crossing over the Firth of Forth, which was roughly five miles across, a different solution had to be found, primarily for the transport of goods, where efficiency was key. The company hired the up-and-coming civil engineer Thomas Bouch who argued for a Train ferry with an efficient roll-on roll-off mechanism to maximise the efficiency of the system. Custom-built ferries were to be built, with railway lines and matching harbour facilities at both ends to allow the rolling stock to easily drive on and off the boat.[3] To compensate for the changing tides, adjustable ramps were positioned at the harbours and the gantry structure height was varied by moving it along the slipway. The wagons were loaded on and off with the use of stationary steam engines.[3][2][page needed] Although others had had similar ideas, it was Bouch who first put them into effect, and did so with an attention to detail (such as design of the ferry slip). This led a subsequent President of the Institution of Civil Engineers[4] to settle any dispute over priority of invention with the observation that "there was little merit in a simple conception of this kind, compared with a work practically carried out in all its details, and brought to perfection."[5] The company was persuaded to install this Train ferry service for the transportation of goods wagons across the Firth of Forth from Burntisland in Fife to Granton. The ferry itself was built by Thomas Grainger, a partner of the firm Grainger and Miller.[6] The service commenced on 3 February 1850.[7] It was called "The Floating Railway"[8] and intended as a temporary measure until the railway could build a bridge, but this was not opened until 1890, its construction delayed in part by repercussions from the catastrophic failure of Thomas Bouch's Tay Rail Bridge.[9] The largest Train ferry ever built is MS Skåne on the Trelleborg-Rostock route, built in 1998, 200 meters (660 ft) long, 29 meters (95 ft) wide, with six tracks plus two on an elevator to the lower deck, having a total length of track of 1,110 meters (3,640 ft). Train ferries rarely sink because of sea hazards, although they have some weaknesses linked to the very nature of transporting trains "on rail" on a ship. These weaknesses include: The Ann Arbor Railroad of Michigan developed a system of making cars secure that was adopted by many other lines. Screw jacks were placed on the corners of the railcar and the car was raised slightly to take its weight off of its wheels. Chains and turnbuckles were placed around the car frame and hooked onto the rails and tightened. Clamps were placed behind the wheels on the rails. Deckhands engaged in continual inspection and tightening of the gear during the crossing. This system effectively held the cars in place when the ship encountered rough weather. Some accidents have occurred at the slip during loading, when stability can be a major problem. Train ferries often list when heavy cars are loaded onto a track on one side while the other side is empty. Normal procedure was to load half of a track on one side, all of the track on the other side, and then the rest of the original track. If this procedure was not followed, results could be disastrous. In 1909, SS Ann Arbor No. 4 capsized in its slip in Manistique, Michigan when a switching crew put eight cars of iron ore on its portside tracks. The crew got off without loss of life, but salvage operations were costly and time-consuming. The Japanese Train ferry, Toya Maru, sank during typhoon Marie on 26 September 1954, killing more than a thousand. Four other train ferries, Seikan maru No.11, Kitami Maru, Tokachi Maru and Hidaka Maru also sank on that day; the loss appeared to be of about 1,430 people. At the time, Japanese train ferries did not have a rear sea-gate, because engineers believed that in-rushing water would simply flow out again quickly and would not pose a danger.[citation needed] However, when the frequency of waves bears the wrong relationship to the length of a ship, each wave arrives as the water from the previous wave is trying to leave, causing water to accumulate on the ship. After the accidents, all Japanese train ferries were retrofitted with rear sea-gates and weather forecast technology was greatly promoted. The Norwegian Train ferry, Skagerrak, built in 1965, sank in gale-force winds on 7 September 1966, on a journey between Kristiansand, Norway, and Hirtshals, Denmark, when the rear sea-gate was destroyed by heavy seas. One person subsequently died of injuries, and six freight cars and a number of automobiles sank to the bottom with the ship. The Canadian Train ferry MV Patrick Morris sank on 20 April 1970, while assisting in a search and rescue operation for a sinking fishing trawler (MFV Enterprise) off the northeast coast of Cape Breton Island. The ferry was trying to maintain position to retrieve a body when its stern gates were overpowered by 30-foot (9 m) waves. It sank within 30 minutes taking several rail cars and 4 crew members, including the Captain, to the bottom of the Cabot Strait. There were 47 survivors. Several train ferries, including SS Milwaukee, SS Pere Marquette 18, and SS Marquette & Bessemer No. 2, have been lost on the Great Lakes. These losses, though causes remain unconfirmed, were attributed to seas boarding the unprotected stern of the ship and swamping it in a severe storm. As a result, seagates were required on all new ships and required to be retrofitted on older vessels. In addition, two wooden cross-lake railroad ferries caught fire and burned. Nine train ferries were used between 1907 and 1990 to cross the Paraná river and join the Buenos Aires province (the main state in Argentina) and the Entre Rios province (the entrance to the Mesopotamian region), until new bridges were built over the rivers they crossed. They were Lucía Carbó (1907), María Parera (1908), Mercedes Lacroze (1909) (three ferries that operated between the ports of Zárate and Ibicuy (Entre Rios), crossing the Paraná River at the northwest of the Buenos Aires province). Then were added Roque Saenz Peña (1911) and Ezequiel Ramos Mejía (1913), paddle train ferries, at Posadas (crossing the Paraná River in the southwest of the Misiones province, at the north of the country, in the frontier with Paraguay). Three other train ferries were added later: Dolores de Urquiza (1926), Delfina Mitre (1928) and Carmen Avellaneda (1929) to cover the service in the Zárate-Ibicuy crossing. María Parera had a collision with Lucía Carbó at km. 145 of the Paraná River, and it sank in less than 15 minutes on June 30, 1926. Two of the most modern still serve as floating piers in the Zárate region, and one of the first group was sunk during a storm at the Buenos Aires port in the 1980s. The two northern paddle ferries still remain at Posadas, and one of them holds a model railway museum inside. All the eight old ferries were built by the A & J Inglis Co. Ltd., in Pointhouse, Glasgow, Scotland, for the Entre Rios Railways Co. in Argentina. The ninth ferry, Tabare, was built in Argentina by Astarsa (ASTilleros ARgentinos S.A.) in 1966 at Astillero Río Santiago Río Santiago Shipyard near to La Plata city. It was the largest Train ferry that operated in Argentina, with a deck more than 100 meters long. Tabaré is still floating, but not operating, at the old south docks of Buenos Aires port, near the Puerto Madero zone. A railbarge is a variation of a Train ferry that consists of barges pushed by a tug. Note: all auto and rail ferry services have been suspended between the United States and Cuba due to the ongoing United States embargo against Cuba. A new Train ferry link-span terminal is under construction at Amirabad Special Economic Zone, Mazandaran Province, Iran. Train ferries were at one time used to cross the Euphrates River at Baghdad. Both Sicily and Sardinia services are operated by Bluvia that is a subsidiary company of Rete Ferroviaria Italiana. At present the link between Mainland and Sicily has a regular and frequent activity, while the link between Mainland and Sardinia is less frequent and operated basically day by day on the basis of the actual traffic demand. In Japanese, a Train ferry is called "鉄道連絡船 tetsudō renrakusen", which means literally "railway connection ship". Such ships may or may not be able to carry railcars. A ferry service that is part of a railway schedule and its fare system is called "tetsudō renrakusen". Japan Railways linked the four main Japanese islands with train ferries before these were replaced by bridges and tunnels. There were three ferry services that carried trains. Through operations of passenger trains using train ferries were conducted between December 1948 and 11 May 1955. The passenger services was canceled after the disasters of Toya Maru (26 September 1954, killed 1,153) and the Shiun Maru (11 May 1955, killed 168) occurred, after which the Japanese National Railways (JNR) considered it dangerous to allow passengers to stay on trains aboard ship. These three lines have been replaced by tunnels and bridges. From 1886 to 1936, train ferries sailed between Stavoren and Enkhuizen across the IJsselmeer. From 1914 to 1983 a ferry carried freight carriages from the Rietlanden shunting area to the Amsterdam-Noord railway network, which was not connected over land to the rest of the Dutch railway network. Encarnacion — Posadas[24] The Caspian Shipping Company (Caspar) has 7 train ferries and is building two more. See Iran. A ferry, though not necessarily a Train ferry, links the 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in) gauge network of Egypt and the 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) network of Sudan, across the Nile River.[citation needed] See Uganda. For international Great Lakes ferries, see Canada. The Trans-Asian Railway has proposed a few train ferries: Media related to Train ferries at Wikimedia Commons

DHL

DHL (Dalsey, Hillblom and Lynn) International GmbH is a German courier, parcel, and express mail service which is a division of the German logistics company Deutsche Post DHL. The company delivers over 1.3 billion parcels per year.[2] The company was founded in the United States in 1969 and expanded its service throughout the world by the late 1970s. In 1979, under the name of DHL Air Cargo, the company entered the Hawaiian islands with an inter-island cargo service utilizing two DC-3 and four DC-6 aircraft. Dalsey and Hillblom personally oversaw the daily operations until its eventual bankruptcy closed the doors in 1983. At its peak, DHL Air Cargo employed just over 100 workers, management and pilots. The company was primarily interested in offshore and intercontinental deliveries, but the success of FedEx prompted their own intra-US expansion starting in 1983. In 1998, Deutsche Post began to acquire shares in DHL. It reached controlling interest in 2001, and acquired all outstanding shares by December 2002.[3] The company then absorbed DHL into its Express division, while expanding the use of the DHL brand to other Deutsche Post divisions, business units, and subsidiaries. Today, DHL Express shares its DHL brand with business units such as DHL Global Forwarding and DHL Supply Chain.[4] It gained a foothold in the United States when it acquired Airborne Express. The DHL Express financial results are published in the Deutsche Post AG annual report.[4] In 2016, this division's revenue increased by 2.7% to €14 billion.[5] The earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) increased by 11.3% over 2015 to €1.5 billion.[6] While Larry Hillblom was studying law at University of California, Berkeley's Boalt Hall School of Law in the late 1960s, he accepted a job as a courier for the insurance company Michael's, Poe & Associates (MPA). He started running courier duty between Oakland International Airport and Los Angeles International Airport, picking up packages for the last flight of the day, and returning on the first flight the next morning, up to five times a week.[7]:12 After he graduated, Hillblom met with MPA salesman Adrian Dalsey and they planned to expand MPA's concept of fast delivery to other business enterprises. They flew between Honolulu and Los Angeles, transporting bills of lading for their first client, Seatrain Lines.[7]:17 Hillblom put up a portion of his student loans to start the company, bringing in his two friends Adrian Dalsey and Robert Lynn as partners, with their combined initials of their surnames as the company name (DHL).[8] They shared a Plymouth Duster that they drove around San Francisco to pick up the documents in suitcases, then rushed to the airport to book flights using another relatively new invention, the corporate credit card. As the business took off, they started hiring new couriers to join the company. Their first hires were Max and Blanche Kroll, whose apartment in Hawaii often became a makeshift flophouse for their couriers. In the 1970s, DHL became an international delivery company, similar to Loomis and Purolator who were the only other international courier companies at the time. The only major competitor in the overnight market was Federal Express (FedEx), which did not open its first international service until 1981, expanding to Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Nevertheless, the domestic market was extremely profitable, and DHL was the third largest courier behind FedEx and UPS. Deutsche Post began to acquire shares in DHL in 1998, acquiring controlling interest in 2001. By the end of 2002, Deutsche Post had acquired all of DHL's remaining stock, and absorbed the operation into its Express division.[3] The DHL brand was expanded to other Deutsche Post divisions, business units and subsidiaries. Today, DHL Express shares its DHL brand with other Deutsche Post business units, such as DHL Global Forwarding, DHL Freight, DHL Supply Chain, and DHL Global Mail. In 2002, DHL Introduced a new red-and-yellow color scheme and logo. DHL Airways, Inc., which handled all US domestic flights, was renamed ASTAR Air Cargo in 2003, following a management buyout. DHL's airline had over 550 pilots in service in October 2008.[11] In August 2003, Deutsche Post acquired Airborne Express and began its integration into DHL. A planned expansion by DHL at Brussels Airport created a political crisis in Belgium in 2004.[12] On 21 October 2004, DHL Express announced that it planned to move its European hub from Brussels to Leipzig, Germany (Vatry, France, was also considered but rejected). DHL's unions called a strike in response and paralyzed work for a day. On 8 November 2004, DHL Express invested €120 million in an Indian domestic courier, Blue Dart, becoming the majority shareholder in the company.[13] In 2005, Deutsche Post made an offer to buy the contract logistics company Exel plc, which had just acquired Tibbett & Britten Group. On 14 December 2005, Deutsche Post announced the completion of the acquisition of Exel. DHL integrated Exel into its logistics division, rebranding the division's services as DHL Exel Supply Chain. Following that acquisition, DHL had a global workforce of 285,000 people (500,000 people including DPWN and other sister companies) and roughly $65 billion in annual sales. In 2006, DHL won a ten-year contract worth £1.6 billion to run the NHS Supply Chain, part of the United Kingdom's National Health Service. Under the contract, DHL was responsible for providing logistics services for over 500,000 products to support 600 hospitals and other health providers in the UK. In a 50/50 joint venture with Lufthansa Cargo, DHL Express co-founded a new cargo airline, AeroLogic, in 2007, based at Leipzig/Halle Airport. The carrier operated up to 11 Boeing 777F planes by 2012.[14] In December 2007, DHL became the first carrier to transport cargo via wind-powered ships, flying MS Beluga Skysails kites. As part of the NHS contract, DHL opened a new 250,000 sq ft (23,000 m2) distribution centre[where?] in 2008 to act as a stock-holding hub for food and other products, with another distribution centre planned for opening in 2012. The two new distribution centres created about 1,000 new jobs.[15] In May 2008, DHL Aviation moved its central depot to Leipzig, Germany, leading to improved service and timeliness to the European Union.[citation needed] In the same month, DHL Express announced restructuring plans for its United States network, including termination of its business relationship with ABX Air and a new contract with competitor UPS for air freight operations.[16] Its cargo hub was also shifted from Wilmington to Louisville.[17][18] The Air Line Pilots Association, International protested,[19] but on 10 November 2008, DHL announced that it was cutting 9,500 jobs as it discontinued domestic air and ground operations within the United States due to economic uncertainty. However, it retained international services and was still in talks with UPS to transport DHL packages between U.S. airports.[20] DHL ended domestic pickup and delivery service in the United States in 2009, effectively leaving UPS and FedEx as the two major express parcel delivery companies in the US.[21] Limited domestic service was still available from DHL, with the packages tendered to USPS for local delivery. In April 2009, UPS announced that DHL and UPS had terminated negotiations without an agreement for UPS to provide airlift for DHL packages between airports in North America. DHL said in a statement, "We have not been able to come to a conclusive agreement that is acceptable to both parties." DHL continued to use its current air cargo providers, ASTAR Air Cargo and ABX Air.[22] In 2013, the company opened a newly expanded and upgraded global hub at the Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport in Erlanger, Kentucky.[23] DHL Express's global headquarters are part of the Deutsche Post headquarters in Bonn. Headquarters for the Americas are located in Plantation, Florida, USA, while its Asia-Pacific and emerging markets headquarters are located in Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and China. The European hub is in Leipzig, Germany. Most of DHL Express' business is incorporated as DHL International GmbH. Major competitors include FedEx, UPS and national post carriers such as United States Postal Service (USPS) and Royal Mail. However, DHL has a minor partnership with the USPS, which allows DHL to deliver small packages to the recipient through the USPS network known as DHL Global Mail, now known as DHL eCommerce. It is also the sole provider for transferring USPS mail in and out of Iraq and Afghanistan. DHL offers worldwide services, including deliveries to countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan and Myanmar (formerly Burma). As it is German-owned, DHL is not affected by U.S. embargoes or sanctions and will ship to Cuba[24] and North Korea.[25][26] However, there are strict codes for delivering to North Korea, as the country has shaky relations with the West.[25] As DHL is no longer a United States company, it is not allowed to make domestic flights between U.S. airports. DHL contracts these services to other providers.[20] DHL has taken measures to control their environmental effect by use of alternative fuel vehicles. DHL changed vehicles in certain delivery fleets in order to use alternative fuels. Certain new vehicles use compressed natural gas, to which DHL hopes to convert 50% of their vehicles in the future.[27] On 16 September 2005, DHL won a High Court injunction establishing an exclusion zone around each of its 288 buildings in the UK as well as the homes of its 18,000 UK employees. The firm has been the subject of a campaign of intimidation because of their business with Huntingdon Life Sciences. The judge banned protesters from coming within 50 yards (46 m) of any DHL premises or the homes of their employees as well as any organized demonstration within 100 yards (91 m) unless the police had been given four hours' notice. The injunction also protects anyone doing business with DHL from intimidation.[28] In December 2014 Deutsche Post DHL purchased the StreetScooter company, a small manufacturer of electric vehicles as part of its long-term goal to reach zero emissions in its delivery operations.[29] By year end 2016, some 2,000 vehicles had been produced.[30][31] In the future, electric vans with a much greater range will be required to achieve the long-term goal of replacing the entire Deutsche Post and DHL Express fleet of approximately 70,000 vehicles with StreetScooter models.[32] The Deutsche Post/DHL GoGreen program plans to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and local air pollutants; the company has four interim goals for doing so, to be achieved by the year 2025. The long-term goal, summarized by Frank Appel, Chief Executive Officer, is more aggressive. "From now until 2050, our mission will be to drive our business toward zero [logistics related] emissions. We are setting the standard for the future of the transport sector and doing our part to help the world community reach its goal of limiting global warming to less than two degrees Celsius."[33] BYD supplies DHL with electric distribution fleet of commercial BYD T3.[34] Deutsche Post owns five airline subsidiaries operating for DHL Express, operating approx. 250 aircraft and another 21 aircraft on orders, which are collectively referred to as DHL Aviation. DHL Express is an equal partner in a sixth airline that operates for DHL Express: For several years, DHL was the primary sponsor of the Porsche RS Spyder Le Mans Prototypes in the International Motor Sports Association American Le Mans Series. DHL also sponsors Ryan Hunter-Reay's #28 IndyCar Series car for Andretti Autosport since 2011. With DHL, Hunter-Reay won the championship for the 2012 IndyCar Series season as well as the 2014 Indianapolis 500. DHL were the main title sponsor of the Jordan Formula One team during 2002. Since then, DHL has become a regular track-side sponsor at various races throughout each year, as well as becoming the 'Official Logistics Partner' of the sport. Since 2007, they also sponsor the DHL Fastest Lap Award for the driver that achieves the most fastest laps in a season.[35] Manchester United Football Club announced them as their first training kit sponsor in August 2011, agreeing to a four-year deal with DHL reported to be worth £40 million; it is believed to be the first instance of training kit sponsorship in English football.[36][37] In 2014, FC Bayern Munich agreed to a six-year sponsorship deal with DHL.[38] In 2012, the company became the main sponsor of League of Ireland club Bohemian F.C.[39] DHL is the current title sponsor of the South African Western Cape Rugby Union teams Western Province and the Stormers. This is came into effect on 1 January 2011 for a period of three years.[40] DHL are still the current sponsor for both teams as of the 2017/18 season. For the 2011–12 Volvo Ocean Race DHL was one of four race partners providing logistics for this event.[41][42] In 2014, the company is sponsoring, with IMG Fashion, DHL Exported, which is aimed at "assisting designers who are already successful locally to gain momentum internationally".[43] DHL Exported will "sponsor a chosen designer for two consecutive seasons at" the Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week in New York, London Fashion Week, Milan Fashion Week or Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week Tokyo.[43] IMG Fashion "will accept applications from February 17 through April 2 at DHLexported.com".[43] Expanding its support to various cultural endeavors, DHL signed as the Official Logistics partner for Cirque du Soleil. DHL transports up to 2,000 tonnes and 80 freight containers utilizing air, sea, and land to transport the equipment from one city to the next.[44] In 2015 DHL became the main sponsor of Italian volleyball club Modena Volley, covering the whole men's SuperLega Italian championship and the CEV Champions League.[45] DHL is a major sponsor of Surf Life Saving Australia.[46]

Ireland West Airport

Ireland West Airport (IATA: NOC, ICAO: EIKN) (Irish: Aerfort Iarthar Éireann Mhuire), officially known as Ireland West Airport Knock (Irish: Aerfort Iarthar Éireann Chnoc Mhuire),[3] is an international airport 5.6 km (3.5 miles) south-west of Charlestown, County Mayo, Ireland. The village of Knock is 20 km (12.5 miles) away. 750,000 passengers used the airport in 2017,[4][5] making it the fourth-busiest in the Republic of Ireland (after Dublin, Cork and Shannon) and the fifth-busiest in all of Ireland (after Belfast International Airport). The airport opened on 25 October 1985 with three Aer Lingus charter flights to Rome: the official opening was on 30 May 1986.[6] The site, on a hill in boggy terrain, was thought by many to be unrealistic, but the airport was built following a long and controversial campaign by Monsignor James Horan,[6] the story of which has even inspired a musical.[7] At the time of construction, the primary motivation was for pilgrims to Knock Shrine. Despite criticisms that the site was too boggy and too foggy, Horan delivered an airport within five years, primarily financed by a Government grant of £9.8 million.[8] He died shortly after the opening of the airport, and his funeral was held at the then-named Horan International Airport. In recent times, Horan has been celebrated with a bronze statue erected at the airport.[9] By 1988, over 100,000 passengers had passed through. Aer Lingus commenced flights from the airport to Birmingham in 1995.[6] On 1 June 2003, hundreds of people gathered to view an Air Atlanta Icelandic Boeing 747 land with 500 returning pilgrims from Lourdes.[10] Since 2003, flag-carrier, low-cost and regional airlines including Aer Lingus, MyTravelLite, Bmibaby, Ryanair, Aer Arann, flybe, Lufthansa and EasyJet have added routes to the UK and mainland Europe. Not all have proven successful, but by 2005 the airport was handling 500,000 passengers per annum.[6] It was voted the Republic of Ireland's best regional airport in 2006 and 2009 by the Chambers of Commerce of Ireland.[6] 2007 was a notable year, with scheduled transatlantic services to New York and Boston commencing in May, operated by the now-defunct Flyglobespan.[11] A record 629,000 passengers used the airport in 2008, a 13% rise compared to the previous year.[6] The installation of the Category II Instrument Landing System in April 2009 has resulted in a significant reduction in the number of flight diversions to other airports due to poor visibility – the airport is 200 metres above sea level.[12] August 2009 was the busiest month for three years, with 81,000 passengers: 28 August was the busiest day in the airport's history, with over 4,500 passengers. In 2011, the month of August was the busiest in the airport's history with 84,052 passengers. 2011 was the most successful year to date with 654,553 passengers. The year saw the commencement of routes to Lanzarote, Tenerife and Gran Canaria operated by Ryanair and to Edinburgh operated by flybe.[13] During September 2011 Ryanair celebrated its four-millionth passenger through the airport, while Lufthansa announced it would be commencing weekly flights to Düsseldorf in May 2012.[14][15] In November 2011, Ryanair announced flights to Beauvais-Tillé, Frankfurt-Hahn, Bergamo-Orio al Serio and Girona-Costa Brava from March 2012. In January 2012 the 20th scheduled route was announced—flybe to Leeds, its third from the airport, from March 2012. Budget carrier BmiBaby announced in May 2012 that it was to axe its only route to Birmingham from 10 June, owing to the airline's takeover by IAG.[16] Flights to Beauvais-Tillé and Frankfurt-Hahn have since ended. In 2013, Ryanair launched a weekly summer route to Málaga on Thursdays. Aer Lingus Regional, which took over the Birmingham route operating a daily service using ATR 72s ended service on 26 October. Flybe began four-times-weekly flights on the route on 27 October. On 31 October 2013, in response to the scrapping of the Irish travel tax, Ryanair unveiled three new routes from Knock to Glasgow-Prestwick, Kaunas and Eindhoven. However, these routes had all been withdrawn by the fourth quarter of 2014.[17] On 16 August 2015, Aer Lingus operated its first transatlantic flight into the airport when carrying members of the Archdiocese of New York alongside Timothy Cardinal Dolan, the Archbishop of New York. The Archbishop of New York subsequently opened the National Novena the following week after a tour around the entire island (all thirty-two counties). The aircraft used for the flight was a Boeing 757-200. It was announced in November 2017 that €15 million would be invested in improving and upgrading the airport in 2018 and 2019, to coincide with strong passenger growth.[18] These plans include upgrading of car parks, passenger facilities, the terminal and resurfacing of the runway. On Thursday 20 February 2020, the first Airbus A380 (F-HPJB) to be retired by Air France arrived from Dresden, Germany, for scrapping. The A380 was only ten years old.[19] The building of the airport was primarily financed by Government grants totaling £9.858 million.[20] The completion of the airport was funded by a £1.3 million grant from the European Union, payable on condition that the airport developers provided an equal sum from their own resources.[21] On 21 February 2007, the Government of Ireland announced that it was making a €27 million capital grant. The airport stated that it would continue the implementation of its €46 million infrastructural investment programme with over €20 million of spend anticipated for 2008.[22] Work commenced on a number of significant civil and building projects in this year. A€5.5 million extension to the terminal building was completed in April 2009. The implementation of Category II Instrument Landing System (CAT II ILS) on runway 27, to enhance reliability in low visibility, has been completed and approved. An extension to the Runway End Safety Areas (RESAs) and runway turnpad was completed in March 2009.[23] Departing passengers aged 12 years and over pay a "Development Fee" of €10. The fee is a critical contributor to the ongoing sustainability of the airport and provides a vital funding source to support the ongoing development works of the airport.[24] In 2005, the airport changed its name to Ireland West Airport Knock.[3] As of August 2009, the Aeronautical Information Publication, including the aeronautical charts available at European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation, showed it as Ireland West.[1] The following airlines operate scheduled and charter flights to and from Ireland West Airport:[25] The airport is near the N17 road, about halfway between Galway and Sligo. It is also close to the N5 Westport to Longford road. Over 1,500 short-term and long-term parking spaces are available at the airport. The nearest large towns, Castlebar and Ballina, are both 38 kilometres (24 mi) distant, while Sligo is 54 km (34 mi) from the airport. Galway is 89 km (55 mi) away and Dublin is 220 km (140 mi) from the airport. Bus Éireann airport services:[30] The nearest railway stations are Ballyhaunis (22 km/13.7 miles), Foxford (27 km/16.8 miles) & Claremorris (31 km/19.3 miles), accessible by taxi and bus. The reopening of the Western Rail Corridor from Claremorris onto Sligo would ultimately have closer railway access to the airport. Ireland West Airport is serviced by specially licensed Hackneys and must be pre booked by the laws set down by the national transport authority in Ireland.[31] A number of international car rental companies offer rental facilities at Ireland West Airport including Budget, Avis, Europcar and Hertz.[31] Media related to Ireland West Airport Knock at Wikimedia Commons

Marcella (TV series)

Marcella is a British "Nordic"-noir detective series,[2][3][4] written, directed and produced by Swedish screenwriter Hans Rosenfeldt, creator of The Bridge. The series is produced by Buccaneer Media for ITV and distributed worldwide by Buccaneer's parent company Cineflix.[5] It was first broadcast on ITV on 4 April 2016, with seven further episodes broadcast weekly.[6] The series stars Anna Friel as Marcella Backland, a former London detective who returns to work to investigate an open case from 11 years ago involving an unidentified serial killer who appears to have become active again. Marcella also has to deal with a hectic home life, where her husband, Jason (Nicholas Pinnock), has made the decision to leave her and, at first, send their two children to a boarding school; but later on (in the second season) he uses Marcella's mental disorder as a means to take full custody. Nina Sosanya (series one), Ray Panthaki and Jamie Bamber are also credited as principal members of the cast. The series was commissioned in June 2015,[7] with location filming taking place in London and the Port of Dover.[8] After their broadcast on ITV, episodes are available to stream on Netflix outside the United Kingdom.[9] The first series was released on DVD via Universal Pictures UK on 20 June 2016.[10] In 2017, Friel was awarded the International Emmy Award for Best Actress for her performance in Marcella.[11] On 26 August 2016, ITV announced that a second series had been commissioned.[12] The second series premiered on 19 February 2018[13] and was released on DVD on 16 April 2018.[14] On 3 October 2018 it was announced that Marcella would be returning to ITV for a third series, and will begin airing in 2020. Season 3 also returned to Netflix, on June 14, 2020.[15] Marcella Backland (Anna Friel), a former London Metropolitan Police Service detective, decides to return to work after her husband of 15 years, Jason (Nicholas Pinnock), abruptly announces he is leaving her. Marcella resumes her investigation into the three unsolved Grove Park murders from 2005, when it appears the serial killer responsible has returned. Unbeknownst to Jason, Marcella is experiencing blackout episodes. Marcella worries she herself may be involved when Grace, the woman Jason has been having an affair with, is murdered. Marcella investigates a serial killer of children, encountering a paedophile, an arrogant millionaire, a 1970s rock star, and strange symbols relating to witchcraft. Her estranged husband Jason has become engaged to his rehab nurse even though their divorce is not yet finalised, putting their children in the middle of a custody battle that quickly becomes ugly. Marcella's blackouts continue, and she seeks counselling to help her remember what happened during them. Marcella has assumed a new identity as Keira Devlin and is working undercover in Northern Ireland where she becomes involved with a wealthy crime family. It also digs deeper into Marcella's mental health issues[16]

N%C3%BCrburgring

The Nürburgring is a 150,000 person capacity motorsports complex located in the town of Nürburg, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. It features a Grand Prix race track built in 1984, and a much longer Nordschleife "North loop" track which was built in the 1920s around the village and medieval castle of Nürburg in the Eifel mountains. The north loop is 20.8 km (12.9 mi) long and has more than 300 metres (1,000 feet) of elevation change from its lowest to highest points. Jackie Stewart nicknamed the old track "The Green Hell".[1] Originally, the track featured four configurations: the 28.265 km (17.563 mi)-long Gesamtstrecke ("Whole Course"), which in turn consisted of the 22.810 km (14.173 mi) Nordschleife ("North Loop"), and the 7.747 km (4.814 mi) Südschleife ("South Loop"). There also was a 2.281 km (1.417 mi) warm-up loop called Zielschleife ("Finish Loop") or Betonschleife ("Concrete Loop"), around the pit area.[2] Between 1982 and 1983 the start/finish area was demolished to create a new GP-Strecke, and this is used for all major and international racing events. However, the shortened Nordschleife is still in use for racing, testing and public access. In 1907, the first Eifelrennen race was held on the one-off Taunus circuit, a 117 km (73 mi) made up of public roads starting between the towns of Wehrleim and Saalburg just north of Frankfurt. In the early 1920s, ADAC Eifelrennen races were held on the twisty 33.2 km (20.6 mi) Nideggen public road circuit near Cologne and Bonn. Sometime around 1925, the construction of a dedicated race track was proposed just south of the Nideggen circuit around the ancient castle of the town of Nürburg, following the examples of Italy's Monza and Targa Florio courses, and Berlin's AVUS, yet with a different character. The layout of the circuit in the mountains was similar to the Targa Florio event, one of the most important motor races at that time. The original Nürburgring was to be a showcase for German automotive engineering and racing talent. Construction of the track, designed by the Eichler Architekturbüro from Ravensburg (led by architect Gustav Eichler), began in September 1925. The track was completed in spring of 1927, and the ADAC Eifelrennen races were continued there. The first races to take place on 18 June 1927 showed motorcycles and sidecars. The first motorcycle race was won by Toni Ulmen on an English 350 cc Velocette. The cars followed a day later, and Rudolf Caracciola was the winner of the over 5000 cc class in a Mercedes-Benz Compressor. In addition, the track was opened to the public in the evenings and on weekends, as a one-way toll road.[3] The whole track consisted of 174 bends (prior to 1971 changes), and averaged 8 to 9 metres (26 to 30 ft) in width. The fastest time ever around the full Gesamtstrecke was by Louis Chiron, at an average speed of 112.31 km/h (72 mph) in his Bugatti. In 1929 the full Nürburgring was used for the last time in major racing events, as future Grands Prix would be held only on the Nordschleife. Motorcycles and minor races primarily used the shorter and safer Südschleife. Memorable pre-war races at the circuit featured the talents of early Ringmeister (Ringmasters) such as Rudolf Caracciola, Tazio Nuvolari and Bernd Rosemeyer. After World War II, racing resumed in 1947 and in 1951, the Nordschleife of the Nürburgring again became the main venue for the German Grand Prix as part of the Formula One World Championship (with the exception of 1959, when it was held on the AVUS in Berlin). A new group of Ringmeister arose to dominate the race – Alberto Ascari, Juan Manuel Fangio, Stirling Moss, Jim Clark, John Surtees, Jackie Stewart and Jacky Ickx. On 5 August 1961, during practice for the 1961 German Grand Prix, Phil Hill became the first person to complete a lap of the Nordschleife in under 9 minutes, with a lap of 8 minutes 55.2 seconds (153.4 km/h or 95.3 mph) in the Ferrari 156 "Sharknose" Formula One car. Over half a century later, even the highest performing road cars still have difficulty breaking 8 minutes without a professional race driver or one very familiar with the track. Also, several rounds of the German motorcycle Grand Prix were held, mostly on the 7.7 km (4.8 mi) Südschleife, but the Hockenheimring and the Solitudering were the main sites for Grand Prix motorcycle racing. In 1953, the ADAC 1000 km Nürburgring race was introduced, an Endurance race and Sports car racing event that counted towards the World Sportscar Championship for decades. The 24 Hours Nürburgring for touring car racing was added in 1970. By the late 1960s, the Nordschleife and many other tracks were becoming increasingly dangerous for the latest generation of F1 cars. In 1967, a chicane was added before the start/finish straight, called Hohenrain, in order to reduce speeds at the pit lane entry. This made the track 25 m (82 ft) longer. Even this change, however, was not enough to keep Stewart from nicknaming it "The Green Hell" following his victory in the 1968 German Grand Prix amid a driving rainstorm and thick fog. In 1970, after the fatal crash of Piers Courage at Zandvoort, the F1 drivers decided at the French Grand Prix to boycott the Nürburgring unless major changes were made, as they did at Spa the year before. The changes were not possible on short notice, and the German GP was moved to the Hockenheimring, which had already been modified. In accordance with the demands of the F1 drivers, the Nordschleife was reconstructed by taking out some bumps, smoothing out some sudden jumps (particularly at Brünnchen), and installing Armco safety barriers. The track was made straighter, following the race line, which reduced the number of corners. The German GP could be hosted at the Nürburgring again, and was for another six years from 1971 to 1976. In 1973 the entrance into the dangerous and bumpy Kallenhard corner was made slower by adding another left-hand corner after the fast Metzgesfeld sweeping corner. Safety was improved again later on, e.g. by removing the jumps on the long main straight and widening it, and taking away the bushes right next to the track at the main straight, which had made that section of the Nürburgring dangerously narrow. A second series of three more F1 races was held until 1976. However, primarily due to its length of over 22 kilometres (14 mi), and the lack of space due to its situation on the sides of the mountains, increasing demands by the F1 drivers and the FIA's CSI commission were too expensive or impossible to meet. For instance, by the 1970s the German Grand Prix required five times the marshals and medical staff as a typical F1 race, something the German organizers were unwilling to provide. Additionally, even with the 1971 modifications it was still possible for cars to become airborne off the track. The Nürburgring was also unsuitable for the burgeoning television market; its vast expanse made it almost impossible to effectively cover a race there. As a result, early in the season it was decided that the 1976 race would be the last to be held on the old circuit. Niki Lauda, the reigning world champion and only person ever to lap the full 22,835-metre (14.189 mi) Nordschleife in under seven minutes (6:58.6, 1975), proposed to the other drivers that they boycott the circuit in 1976. Lauda was not only concerned about the safety arrangements and the lack of marshals around the circuit, he also did not like the prospect of running the race in another rainstorm. Usually when that happened, some parts of the circuit were wet and other parts were dry, which is what the conditions of the circuit were for that race. The other drivers voted against the idea and the race went ahead. Lauda crashed in his Ferrari coming out of the left-hand kink before Bergwerk after a new magnesium component on his Ferrari's rear suspension failed. He was badly burned as his car was still loaded with fuel in lap 2. Lauda was saved by the combined actions of fellow drivers Arturo Merzario, Guy Edwards, Brett Lunger, and Harald Ertl, rather than by the ill-equipped track marshals. The crash also showed that the track's distances were too long for regular fire engines and ambulances, even though the "ONS-Staffel" was equipped with a Porsche 911 rescue car, marked (R). The old Nürburgring never hosted another F1 race again, as the German Grand Prix was moved to the Hockenheimring for 1977. The German motorcycle Grand Prix was held for the last time on the old Nürburgring in 1980, also permanently moving to Hockenheim. By its very nature, the Nordschleife was impossible to make safe in its old configuration. It soon became apparent that it would have to be completely overhauled if there was any prospect of Formula One returning there- the Nurburgring's administration and race organizers were not willing to provide the enormous expense of providing the amount of marshals needed for a Grand Prix- up to 6 times the amount that most other circuits needed. With this in mind, in 1981 work began on a 4.5 km (2.8 mi)-long new circuit, which was built on and around the old pit area. At the same time, a bypass shortened the Nordschleife to 20,832 m (12.944 mi), and with an additional small pit lane, this version was used for races in 1983, e.g. the 1000km Nürburgring endurance race, while construction work was going on nearby. During qualifying for that race, the late Stefan Bellof set a lap of 6:11.13 for the 20.8 km (12.9 mi) Nordschleife in his Porsche 956, or 199.8 km/h (124.1 mph) on average. This lap held the all-time record for 35 years (partially because no major racing has taken place there since 1984) until it was surpassed by Timo Bernhard in the Porsche 919 Hybrid Evo, which ran the slightly longer version of the circuit in 5:19.546- averaging 233.8 km/h (145.3 mph) on June 29, 2018. Meanwhile, more run-off areas were added at corners like Aremberg and Brünnchen, where originally there were just embankments protected by Armco barriers. The track surface was made safer in some spots where there had been nasty bumps and jumps. Racing line markers were added to the corners all around the track as well. Also, bushes and hedges at the edges of corners were taken out and replaced with Armco and grass. The former Südschleife had not been modified in 1970/71 and was abandoned a few years later in favour of the improved Nordschleife. It is now mostly gone (in part due to the construction of the new circuit) or converted to a normal public road, but since 2005 a vintage car event has been hosted on the old track layout, including part of the parking area.[4] The new track was completed in 1984 and named GP-Strecke (German: Großer Preis-Strecke: literally, "Grand Prix Course"). It was built to meet the highest safety standards. However, it was considered in character a mere shadow of its older sibling. Some fans, who had to sit much farther away from the track, called it Eifelring, Ersatzring, Grünering or similar nicknames, believing it did not deserve to be called Nürburgring. Like many circuits of the time, it offered few overtaking opportunities. Prior to the 2013 German Grand Prix both Mark Webber and Lewis Hamilton said they like the track. Webber described the layout as "an old school track" before adding, "It’s a beautiful little circuit for us to still drive on so I think all the guys enjoy driving here." While Hamilton said "It’s a fantastic circuit, one of the classics and it hasn’t lost that feel of an old classic circuit."[5] To celebrate its opening, an exhibition race was held, on 12 May, featuring an array of notable drivers. Driving identical Mercedes 190E 2.3–16's, the line-up was Elio de Angelis, Jack Brabham (Formula 1 World Champion 1959, 1960, 1966), Phil Hill (1961), Denis Hulme (1967), James Hunt (1976), Alan Jones (1980), Jacques Laffite, Niki Lauda (1975, 1977)*, Stirling Moss, Alain Prost*, Carlos Reutemann, Keke Rosberg (1982), Jody Scheckter (1979), Ayrton Senna*, John Surtees (1964) and John Watson. Senna won ahead of Lauda, Reutemann, Rosberg, Watson, Hulme and Jody Scheckter, being the only one to resist Lauda's performance who – having missed the qualifying – had to start from the last row and overtook all the others except Senna.[6][7] There were nine former and two future Formula 1 World Champions competing, in a field of 20 cars with 16 Formula 1 drivers; the other four were local drivers: Klaus Ludwig, Manfred Schurti, Udo Schütz and Hans Herrmann. Besides other major international events, the Nürburgring has seen the brief return of Formula One racing, as the 1984 European Grand Prix was held at the track, followed by the 1985 German Grand Prix. As F1 did not stay, other events were the highlights at the new Nürburgring, including the 1000km Nürburgring, DTM, motorcycles, and newer types of events, like truck racing, vintage car racing at the AvD "Oldtimer Grand Prix", and even the "Rock am Ring" concerts. Following the success and first world championship of Michael Schumacher, a second German F1 race was held at the Nürburgring between 1995 and 2006, called the European Grand Prix, or in 1997 and 1998, the Luxembourg Grand Prix. For 2002, the track was changed, by replacing the former "Castrol-chicane" at the end of the start/finish straight with a sharp right-hander (nicknamed "Haug-Hook"), in order to create an overtaking opportunity. Also, a slow Omega-shaped section was inserted, on the site of the former kart track. This extended the GP track from 4,500 to 5,200 m (2.80 to 3.23 mi), while at the same time, the Hockenheimring was shortened from 6,800 to 4,500 m (4.23 to 2.80 mi). Both the Nürburgring and the Hockenheimring events have been losing money due to high and rising Formula One license fees charged by Bernie Ecclestone and low attendance due to high ticket prices[8][9][citation needed]; starting with the 2007 Formula One season, Hockenheim and Nürburgring will alternate for hosting of the German GP. In Formula One, Ralf Schumacher collided with his teammate Giancarlo Fisichella and his brother at the start of the 1997 race which was won by Jacques Villeneuve. In 1999, in changing conditions, Johnny Herbert managed to score the only win for the team of former Ringmeister Jackie Stewart. One of the highlights of the 2005 season was Kimi Räikkönen's spectacular exit while in the last lap of the race, when his suspension gave way after being rattled lap after lap by a flat-spotted tyre that was not changed due to the short-lived 'one set of tyres' rule. Prior to the 2007 European Grand Prix, the Audi S (turns 8 and 9) was renamed Michael Schumacher S after Michael Schumacher. Schumacher had retired from Formula One the year before, but returned in 2010, and in 2011 became the second Formula One driver to drive through a turn named after them (after Ayrton Senna driving his "S for Senna" at Autódromo José Carlos Pace). In 2007, the FIA announced that Hockenheimring and Nürburgring would alternate with the German Grand Prix with Nürburgring hosting in 2007. Due to name-licensing problems, it was held as the European Grand Prix that year. In 2014, the new owners of the Nürburgring were unable to secure a deal to continue hosting the German Grand Prix in the odd numbered years, so the 2015 and 2017 German Grands Prix were cancelled. In July 2020, it was announced that after seven years, the race track would be an official Formula One Grand Prix with the event taking place from 9 to 11 October 2020. This race will be called the Eifel Grand Prix in honour of the nearby mountain range meaning the venue will hold a Grand Prix under a fourth different name having hosted races under the German, European and Luxembourg Grands Prix titles previously.[10] While it is unusual for deaths to occur during sanctioned races, there are many accidents and several deaths each year during public sessions. It is common for the track to be closed several times a day for cleanup, repair, and medical intervention. While track management does not publish any official figures, several regular visitors to the track have used police reports to estimate the number of fatalities at somewhere between 3 and 12 in a full year.[11] Jeremy Clarkson noted in Top Gear in 2004 that "over the years this track has claimed over 200 lives".[12] Several touring car series still compete on the Nordschleife, using either only the simple 20.8 km (12.9 mi) version with its separate small pit lane, or a combined 24.4 km (15.2 mi)-long track that uses a part of the original modern F1 track (without the Mercedes Arena section, which is often used for support pits) plus its huge pit facilities. Entry-level competition requires a regularity test (GLP) for street-legal cars. Two racing series (RCN/CHC and VLN) compete on 15 Saturdays each year, for several hours. The annual highlight is the 24 Hours Nürburgring weekend, held usually in mid-May, featuring 220 cars – from small 100 hp (75 kW) cars to 700 hp (520 kW) Turbo Porsches or 500 hp (370 kW) factory race cars built by BMW, Opel, Audi, and Mercedes-Benz, over 700 drivers (amateurs and professionals), and up to 290,000 spectators. As of 2015 the World Touring Car Championship holds the FIA WTCC Race of Germany at the Nordschleife as a support category to the 24 Hours. Automotive media outlets and manufacturers use the Nordschleife as a standard to publish their lap times achieved with their production vehicles. BMW Sauber’s Nick Heidfeld made history on 28 April 2007 as the first driver in over thirty years to tackle the Nürburgring Nordschleife track in a contemporary Formula One car.[13] Heidfeld’s three laps in an F1.06 were part of festivities celebrating BMW’s contribution to motorsport. About 45,000 spectators showed up for the main event, the third four-hour VLN race of the season. Conceived largely as a photo opportunity, the lap times were not as fast as the car was capable of, BMW instead choosing to run the chassis at a particularly high ride height to allow for the Nordschleife's abrupt gradient changes and to limit maximum speeds accordingly. Former F1 driver Hans-Joachim Stuck was injured during the race when he crashed his BMW Z4. As part of the festivities before the 2013 24 Hours Nürburgring race, Michael Schumacher and other Mercedes-Benz drivers took part in a promotional event which saw Schumacher complete a demonstration lap of the Nordschleife at the wheel of a 2011 Mercedes W02.[14] As with Heidfeld's lap, and also partly due to Formula One's strict in-season testing bans, the lap left many motorsport fans underwhelmed.[15] Since its opening in 1927, the track has been used by the public for the so-called Touristenfahrten, i.e. anyone with a road-legal car or motorcycle, as well as tour buses, motor homes, or cars with trailers. It is opened every day of the week, except when races take place. The track may be closed for weeks during the winter months, depending on weather conditions and maintenance work. Passing on the right is prohibited, and some sections have speed limits; the normal traffic rules (StVO in German) apply also here. The Nürburgring is a popular attraction for many driving enthusiasts and riders from all over the world, partly because of its history and the challenge it provides. The lack of oncoming traffic and intersections sets it apart from regular roads, and the absence of a blanket speed limit is a further attraction. Normal ticket buyers on tourist days cannot quite complete a full lap of the 20.8 km (12.9 mi) Nordschleife, which bypasses the modern GP-Strecke, as they are required to slow down and pass through a 200-metre (220 yd) "pit lane" section where toll gates are installed. On busier days, a mobile ticket barrier is installed on the main straight in order to reduce the length of queues at the fixed barriers. This is open to all ticket holders. On rare occasions, it is possible to drive both the Nordschleife and the Grand Prix circuit combined. Drivers interested in lap times often time themselves from the first bridge after the barriers to the last gantry (aka Bridge-to-Gantry or BTG time) before the exit.[16] However, the track's general conditions state that any form of racing, including speed record attempts, is forbidden.[17] The driver's insurance coverage may consequently be voided, leaving the driver fully liable for damage. Normal, non-racing, non-timed driving accidents might be covered by driver's insurance, but it is increasingly common for UK insurers especially to insert exclusion clauses that mean drivers and riders on the Nürburgring only have third-party coverage[18] or are not covered at all.[19] Drivers who have crashed into the barriers, suffered mechanical failure or been otherwise required to be towed off track during Touristenfahrten sessions are referred to as having joined the "Bongard Club". This nickname is derived from the name of the company which operates the large yellow recovery flatbed trucks which ferry those unfortunate drivers and their vehicles to the nearest exit.[20] Due to the high volume of traffic, there is an emphasis on quickly clearing and repairing any compromised safety measures so the track can be immediately re-opened for use. Additionally, those found responsible for damage to the track or safety barriers are required to pay for repairs, along with the time and cost associated with personnel and equipment to address those damages, making any accident or breakdown a potentially expensive incident. Because it is technically operated as a public toll road, failing to report an accident or instance where track surfaces are affected is considered unlawfully leaving the scene of an accident.[21] This is all part of the rules and regulations which aim to ensure a safe experience for all visitors to the track. One of the original purposes of the Nordschleife was as a test track for auto manufacturers, and its demanding layout had been traditionally used as a proving ground. Weekdays are often booked for so-called Industriefahrten for auto makers and the media. With the advent of the Internet, awareness of the Nordschleife has risen in Germany and abroad, in addition to publicity in print media. In 1999, Porsche reported that their new 996 GT3 had lapped the Nürburgring in under eight minutes, and in subsequent years, manufacturers from overseas also showed up to test cars. Some high-performance models are promoted with videotaped laps published on the web, and the claimed lap times are generating discussion. Few of these supercars are actually entered in racing where the claims could be backed up. For sixteen weeks per year, the industry pool (Industrie-Pool) rents exclusive daytime use of the track for automotive development, and endurance testing.[22] As of 2017[update] the industry pool consisted of approximately 30 car manufacturers, associations, and component suppliers.[22] By 2019, the track was being rented by the industry pool for 18 weeks per year.[23] The TV Series Top Gear has also used the Nordschleife for its challenges, often involving Sabine Schmitz. In addition, during series 17 (summer 2011) of Top Gear, James May was very critical of the ride quality of cars whose development processes included testing on the Nordschleife, saying that cars which were tested at Nordschleife got ruined. Multiple layouts of the Nürburgring have been featured in video games, such as the Gran Turismo series, the Forza Motorsport series, iRacing and Assetto Corsa. Grand Prix Legends, a historic racing simulator also included the Nürburgring on its roster of default Grand Prix tracks. Other pastimes are hosted at the Nürburgring, such as the Rock am Ring, Germany's biggest rock music festival, attracting close to 100,000 rock fans each year since 1985. Since 1978, the Nordschleife is also the venue of a major running event (Nürburgring-Lauf/Run am Ring). In 2003, a major bicycling event (Rad am Ring) was added and it became the multi-sports event Rad & Run am Ring. In 2009, new commercial areas opened, including a hotel and shopping mall. In the summer of 2009, ETF Ride Systems opened a new interactive dark ride application called "Motor Mania" at the racetrack, in collaboration with Lagotronics B.V.[24] The roller coaster "ring°racer" was scheduled to open in 2011 but never started its operations due to technical failures. In 2012, the track was preparing to file for bankruptcy as a result of nearly $500 million in debts and the inability to secure financing.[25] On 1 August 2012, the government of Rheinland-Pfalz guaranteed $312 million to allow the track to meet its debt obligations.[26] In 2013, the Nürburgring was for sale for US$165 million (€127.3 million).[27] The sale process was by sealed-bid auction with an expected completion date of "Late Summer". This meant there was to be a new owner in 2013, unencumbered by the debts of the previous operation, with the circuit expected to return to profitability.[28] On March 11, 2014 it was reported that the Nürburgring was sold for 77 million euros ($106.8 million). Düsseldorf-based Capricorn Development was the buyer. The company was to take full ownership of the Nürburgring on January 1, 2015.[29] But in October 2014, Russian billionaire, the chairman of Moscow-based Pharmstandard, Viktor Kharitonin, bought a majority stake in the Nürburgring.[30] In May 2015, the Nürburgring was set to hold the first Grüne Hölle Rock festival as a replacement for the Rock am Ring festival,[31] but the project did not take place. Grüne Hölle Rock has changed their name to Rock im Revier and will be held in the Schalke area.[32] The Nordschleife operates in a clockwise direction, and was formerly known for its abundance of sharp crests, causing fast-moving, firmly-sprung racing cars to jump clear off the track surface at many locations. Although by no means the most fearsome, Flugplatz is perhaps the most aptly (although coincidentally) named and widely remembered. The name of this part of the track comes from a small airfield, which in the early years was located close to the track in this area. The track features a very short straight that climbs sharply uphill for a short time, then suddenly drops slightly downhill, and this is immediately followed by two very fast right-hand kinks. Chris Irwin's career was ended following a massive accident at Flugplatz, in a Ford 3L GT sports car in 1968. Manfred Winkelhock flipped his March Formula Two car at the same corner in 1980. This section of the track was renovated in 2016[33] after an accident in which a Nissan GTR flew over the fence and killed a spectator.[34] The Flugplatz is one of the most important parts of the Nürburgring because after the two very fast right handers comes what is possibly the fastest part of the track: a downhill straight called Kottenborn, into a very fast curve called Schwedenkreuz (Swedish Cross). Drivers are flat out for some time here. Right before Flugplatz is Quiddelbacher-Höhe (peak, as in "mountain summit"), where the track crosses a bridge over the Bundesstraße 257. The Fuchsröhre is soon after the very fast downhill section succeeding the Flugplatz. After negotiating a long right hand corner called Aremberg (which is after Schwedenkreuz) the road goes slightly uphill, under a bridge and then it plunges downhill, and the road switches back left and right and finding a point of reference for the racing line is difficult. This whole sequence is flat out and then, the road climbs sharply uphill. The road then turns left and levels out at the same time; this is one of the many jumps of the Nürburgring where the car goes airborne. This leads to the Adenauer Forst (forest) turns. The Fuchsröhre is one of the fastest and most dangerous parts of the Nürburgring because of the extremely high speeds in such a tight and confined place; this part of the Nürburgring goes right through a forest and there is only about 7–8 feet of grass separating the track from Armco barrier, and beyond the barriers is a wall of trees. Perhaps the most notorious corner on the long circuit, Bergwerk has been responsible for some serious and sometimes fatal accidents.[35][36] A tight right-hand corner, coming just after a long, fast section and a left-hand kink on a small crest, was where Carel Godin de Beaufort fatally crashed. The fast kink was also the scene of Niki Lauda's infamous fiery accident during the 1976 German Grand Prix. This left kink is often referred to as the Lauda Links (Lauda left). The Bergwerk, along with the Breidscheid/Adenauer Bridge corners before it, are one of the series of corners that make or break one's lap time around the Nürburgring because of the fast, lengthy uphill section called Kesselchen (Little Valley) that comes after the Bergwerk. Although being one of the slower corners on the Nordschleife, the Karussell is perhaps its most famous and one of its most iconic- it is one of two berm-style, banked corners on the track. Soon after the driver has negotiated the long uphill section after Bergwerk and gone through a section called Klostertal (Monastery Valley), the driver turns right through a long hairpin, past an abandoned section called Steilstrecke (Steep Route) and then goes up another hill towards the Karrusell. The entrance to the corner is blind, although Juan Manuel Fangio is reputed to have advised a young driver to "aim for the tallest tree," a feature that was also built into the rendering of the circuit in the Gran Turismo 4 and Grand Prix Legends video games. Once the driver has reached the top of the hill, the road then becomes sharply banked on one side and level on the other- this banking drops off, rather than climbing up like most bankings on circuits. The sharply banked side has a concrete surface, and there is a foot-wide tarmac surface on the bottom of the banking for cars to get extra grip through the very rough concrete banking. Cars drop into the concrete banking, and keep the car in the corner (which is 210 degrees, much like a hairpin bend) until the road levels out and the concrete surface becomes tarmac again. This corner is very hard on the driver's wrists and hands because of the prolonged bumpy cornering the driver must do while in the Karrusell. Usually cars come out of the top of the end of the banking to hit the apex that comes right after the end of the Karrusell. The combination of a recognisable corner, slow-moving cars, and the variation in viewing angle as cars rotate around the banking, means that this is one of the circuit's most popular locations for photographers. It is named after German pre-WWII racing driver Rudolf Caracciola, who reportedly made the corner his own by hooking the inside tires into a drainage ditch to help his car "hug" the curve. As more concrete was uncovered and more competitors copied him, the trend took hold. At a later reconstruction, the corner was remade with real concrete banking, as it remains to this day. Shortly after the Karussell is a steep section, with gradients in excess of 16%, leading to a right-hander called Hohe Acht, which is some 300 m higher in altitude than Breidscheid.[37] A favourite spectator vantage point, the Brünnchen section is composed of two right-hand corners and a very short straight. The first corner goes sharply downhill and the next, after the very short downhill straight, goes uphill slightly. This is a section of the track where on public days, accidents happen particularly at the blind uphill right-hand corner. Like almost every corner at the Nürburgring, both right-handers are blind. The short straight used to have a steep and sudden drop-off that caused cars to take off and a bridge that went over a pathway; these were taken out and smoothed over when the circuit was rebuilt in 1970 and 1971. The Pflanzgarten, which is soon after the Brünnchen, is one of the fastest, trickiest and most difficult sections of the Nürburgring. It is full of jumps, including two huge ones, one of which is called Sprunghügel (Hill Jump). This very complex section is unique in that it is made up of two different sections; getting the entire Pflanzgarten right is crucial to a good lap time around the Nürburgring. This section was the scene of Briton Peter Collins's fatal accident during the 1958 German Grand Prix, and the scene of a number of career-ending accidents in Formula One in the 1970s —Britons Mike Hailwood and Ian Ashley were two victims of the Pflanzgarten. Pflanzgarten 1 is made up of a slightly banked, downhill left hander which then suddenly switches back left, then right. Then immediately, giving the driver nearly no time to react (knowledge of this section is key) the road drops away twice: the first jump is only slight, then right after (somewhat like a staircase) the road drops away very sharply which usually causes almost all cars to go airborne at this jump; the drop is so sudden. Then, immediately after the road levels out very shortly after the jump and the car touches the ground again, the road immediately and suddenly goes right very quickly and then right again; this is what makes up the end of the first Pflanzgarten- a very fast multiple apex sequence of right hand corners. The road then goes slightly uphill and then through another jump; the road suddenly drops away and levels out and at the same time, the road turns through a flat-out left hander. Then, the road drops away again very suddenly, which is the second huge jump of the Pflanzgarten known as the Sprunghügel. The road then goes downhill then quickly levels out, then it goes through a flat-out right hander and this starts the Stefan Bellof S (named as such because Bellof crashed a Porsche 956 there during the 1983 Nurburgring 1000 km), which was known as Pflanzgarten 2 prior to 2013. The Stefan Bellof S is very tricky because the road quickly switches back left and right—a car is going so fast through here that it is like walking on a tightrope. It is very difficult to find the racing line here because the curves come up so quickly, so it is hard to find any point of reference. Then, after a jump at the end of the switchback section, it goes through a flat-out, top gear right hander and into a short straight that leads into two very fast curves called the Schwalbenschwanz (Swallow's Tail). The room for error on every part of the consistently high-speed Pflanzgarten and the Stefan Bellof S is virtually non-existent (much like the entire track itself). The road and the surface of the Pflanzgarten and the Stefan Bellof S moves around unpredictably; knowledge of this section is key to getting through cleanly. The Schwalbenschwanz is a sequence of very fast sweepers located after the Stefan Bellof S. After a short straight, there is a very fast right hand sweeper that progressively goes uphill, and this leads into a blind left-hander that is a bit slower. The apex is completely blind, and the corner then changes gradient a bit; it goes up then down, which leads into a short straight that ends at the Kleines Karussell. Originally, this part had a bridge that went over a stream and was very bumpy; this bridge was taken out and replaced with a culvert (large industrial pipe) so that the road could be smoothed over. The Kleines Karussell is similar to its bigger brother, except that it is a 90 degree corner instead of 210 degrees, and is faster and slightly less banked. Once this part of the track is dealt with, the drivers are near the end of the lap; with two more corners to negotiate before the 2.135 km long Döttinger Höhe straight. Lap times recorded on the Nürburgring Nordschleife are published by several manufacturers. They are published and discussed in print media, and online. The Nürburgring is known for its changeable weather. The near-fatal accident of Niki Lauda in 1976 was accompanied by poor weather conditions and also the 2007 Grand Prix race saw an early deluge take several cars out through aquaplaning, with Vitantonio Liuzzi making a lucky escape, hitting a retrieving truck with the rear wing first, rather than the fatal accident that befell Jules Bianchi seven years later at Suzuka. In spite of this reputation, the Nürburg weather station only recorded an average of 679.3 millimetres (26.74 in) between 1981–2010.[38] Contrasting this, the relatively nearby Ardennes racetrack of Spa-Francorchamps in Wallonia, Belgium has a much rainier climate, seen by data from the village hosting the track called Stavelot and the village of Malmedy that circuit passes by. Nürburg has a semi-continental climate with both oceanic and continental tendencies. It does however land in the former category (Köppen Cfb). Due to the Nordschleife's varied terrain and elevation, weather may be completely different on either end of the track. The elevation shift also makes thermal differences a strong possibility. The modern Grand Prix circuit also has sizeable elevation changes between the start-finish straight and the lowest point on the opposite end of the track, but the geographical distance and actual elevation gain between the two are lower. Annual sunshine is in the 1500s, which is low by European standards, but only slightly gloomier than the nearest large city of Cologne located on a plain. Contrasting that, Nürburg has cooler weather year round due to the higher elevation of the Eifel Mountains than the Rhine Valley.

Memmingen Airport

Memmingen Airport (IATA: FMM, ICAO: EDJA), also known as Allgäu Airport Memmingen, is an international airport in the town of Memmingerberg near Memmingen, the third-largest city in the Swabia region of Bavaria. It is the smallest of the three commercial airports in the state after Munich Airport and Nuremberg Airport and has the highest altitude of any commercial airport in Germany. It is operated by Flughafen Memmingen GmbH, a limited partnership of mostly local, medium-sized companies and public shares. Located about 3.8 km (2.4 mi) from the centre of Memmingen and 110 km (68 mi) from the city centre of Munich, it serves Memmingen and Allgäu. It also provides a low-cost alternative to Munich Airport and therefore is sometimes referred to as Memmingen/Munich-West Airport. It features flights to European leisure and some metropolitan destinations and handled over 1,7 million passengers in 2019.[1] A military airfield was built at Memmingerberg in 1935. It was used during World War II. After being rebuilt, it was used for the US Air Force training flights from 1956. From 1959 to 2003, it was the home base of German Air Force fighterbomber wing 34 ("Allgäu"). The airport was certified as a regional commercial airport on 20 July 2004 and commenced operation on 5 August 2004, but there were no scheduled or regular chartered flights. Scheduled flights to the 2005 Hanover Fair were cancelled due to lack of demand. In June 2005, the district of Oberallgäu granted initial finance of €480,000. A further sum of €200,000 was granted by the city of Memmingen after a popular vote on 25 September 2005. In 2006, scheduled flights to Dortmund and Rostock were planned but cancelled because the carrier became insolvent. In autumn 2006, Luftfahrtgesellschaft Walter offered chartered flights to Dortmund for two months, during which only 100 passengers were carried. In March 2007, a subsidy of €7,500,000 promised by the Bavarian government was approved by the European Commission. Until 25 September 2008 it was known as Allgäu Airport/Memmingen. On 28 June 2007,[2] TUIfly started offering domestic flights to Berlin, Hamburg, and Cologne, and also flights to holiday destinations such as Palma de Mallorca, Heraklion, Naples, Rome, Venice, and Antalya. In March 2009, Ryanair announced seven new routes serving Memmingen starting May 2009. Ryanair have continued to announce new routes and from May 2010 Ryanair operated 14 routes to and from Memmingen. Wizz Air also started serving Memmingen and has established eight routes since then. On 24 October 2013, Ryanair announced a new seasonal service to Shannon, while Palermo was added as a destination from the summer season of 2015. For the 2015 summer schedule, Wizz Air announced that it would expand its commitment and serve the cities of Tuzla in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Bulgarian city of Sofia and the Lithuanian capital Vilnius.[3] On 5 June 2014, the airport welcomed its five-millionth passenger.[2] In December 2014, InterSky announced that it would be taking over the domestic flights from Memmingen to Berlin and Hamburg by 1 March 2015, as Germanwings had announced that it would cease the same services just a few days earlier.[4] In earlier years, these routes had already been unsuccessfully served by TUIfly, Air Berlin, and Avanti Air. In May 2015, InterSky announced that it would have a presence at Memmingen Airport by October 2015 consisting of one aircraft, adding a new route to Cologne and increasing frequencies on the already existing services to Berlin and Hamburg.[5] Later, that plan was changed as a triangular route of Friedrichshafen - Memmingen - Cologne/Bonn will be established instead of basing an aircraft in Memmingen.[6] However, on 6 November 2015, InterSky ceased all operations due to financial difficulties, leaving Memmingen again without any domestic connections.[7] Ryanair announced in March 2017 plans to establish its second Bavarian base (after Nuremberg Airport) in Memmingen from October 2017 consisting of one aircraft and seven additional routes.[8] Since 31 March 2019, another Ryanair aircraft has been stationed in Memmingen and the workforce has been increased to 70 employees.[9] In December 2017, Memmingen Airport received its safety certification by the European Aviation Safety Agency.[10] 2017 has been announced the first business year in which the airport achieved a profit at year end since the start of public services.[11] In August 2018, the airport announced the schedule for its planned expansion which will take place from September 2018 until 2020. While the runway will be widened and its guidance system and lightning upgraded, the luggage facilities will see an expansion.[12] On 6 December 2018, the 10 millionth passenger was welcomed.[13] In early 2019 the planned expansion works began to widen the runway and expand the handling facilities with the airport being closed for several weeks in September of the same year.[14] The widened and refurbished runway has been inaugurated on 1 October 2019.[15] Memmingen Airport has one passenger terminal building equipped with 10 check-in counters and 7 departure gates[16] used for Schengen flights (1-3) on the ground floor and non-Schengen flights (4-7) on the upper floor. The building has no jet bridges, therefore walk-boarding and bus-boarding is used. There is also a duty-free shop, as well as some restaurants and car-hire facilities at the airport. The terminal has a capacity of two million passengers per year.[16] Memmingen Airport has an ILS Category 1 for runway 24 and is equipped with NDB/DME and GPS RNAV. Originally, the runway was only 30 metres (98 ft) wide with accordingly narrow taxiways due to its former use as a facility for jet fighter aircraft. However, an expansion to the international standard 45 metres (148 ft) had been granted in 2016[17] and was completed in September 2019.[15] Simultaeously, the runway was equipped with new LED lightning while an upgrade of the ILS for direction 06 is under preparation.[15] Two aprons provide parking spaces for six mid-sized aircraft such as the Airbus A320 and Boeing 737 at a time as well as some smaller business jets. There is an additional smaller apron for general aviation aircraft located on the other side of the runway. The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights at Memmingen Airport:[18] The airport is located close to the A96 motorway (Memmingen Ost exit) and its intersection with the A7 motorway. The A96 leads directly to Munich, Lake Constance, and Switzerland, while the A7 leads to Ulm, Northern Germany, and Austria. Taxis as well as several car-hire companies are available at counters in the terminal building.[29] There are coach services from Memmingen Airport directly to Munich (journey time approx. 90 minutes), the Bavarian Alps, other towns in Bavaria, and Eastern Germany.[29] Local bus lines 2 and 810/811 connect the airport within a 15-minute drive with Memmingen town centre, including Memmingen railway station, from where frequent Deutsche Bahn regional services depart for Munich (journey time approx. 1:35) and Augsburg, as well as some long-distance Swiss Federal Railways services to Bregenz and Zürich.[29] Media related to Flughafen Memmingen at Wikimedia Commons

Pixar

Pixar Animation Studios, commonly known as Pixar (/ˈpɪksɑːr/), is an American computer animation studio based in Emeryville, California, a subsidiary of The Walt Disney Studios owned by The Walt Disney Company. Pixar began in 1979 as part of the Lucasfilm computer division, known as the Graphics Group, before its spin-off as a corporation on February 3, 1986, with funding from Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, who became its majority shareholder.[2] Disney purchased Pixar in 2006 at a valuation of $7.4 billion by converting each share of Pixar stock to 2.3 shares of Disney stock,[4][5] a transaction that resulted in Jobs becoming Disney's largest single shareholder at the time. Pixar is best known for its feature films technologically powered by RenderMan, the company's own implementation of the industry-standard RenderMan Interface Specification image-rendering application programming interface. Luxo Jr., a character from the studio's 1986 short film of the same name, is the studio's mascot. Pixar has produced 22 feature films, beginning with Toy Story (1995), which was the first ever computer-animated feature film; its most recent film was Onward (2020). All of the studio's films have debuted with CinemaScore ratings of at least an "A−," which indicates a positive reception with audiences.[6] The studio has also produced dozens of short films. As of July 2019[update], its feature films have earned approximately $14 billion at the worldwide box office,[7] with an average worldwide gross of $680 million per film.[8] Toy Story 3 (2010), Finding Dory (2016), Incredibles 2 (2018) and Toy Story 4 (2019) are all among the 50 highest-grossing films of all time, with Incredibles 2 being the third highest-grossing animated film of all time, with a gross of $1.2 billion; the other three also grossed over $1 billion. Moreover, 15 of Pixar's films are in the 50 highest-grossing animated films of all time. The studio has earned 20 Academy Awards, 8 Golden Globe Awards, and 11 Grammy Awards, along with numerous other awards and acknowledgments. Many of Pixar's films have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, since its inauguration in 2001, with ten Pixar winners being Finding Nemo (2003), The Incredibles (2004), Ratatouille (2007), WALL-E (2008), Up (2009), Toy Story 3 (2010), Brave (2012), Inside Out (2015), Coco (2017), and Toy Story 4 (2019); the three that were nominated for the award without winning it are Monsters, Inc. (2001), Cars (2006), and Incredibles 2. In addition to that award, Up and Toy Story 3 were also the second and third animated films, respectively, to be nominated for the more inclusive Academy Award for Best Picture (the first being Walt Disney Animation Studios' Beauty and the Beast in 1991). On September 6, 2009, Pixar executives John Lasseter, Brad Bird, Pete Docter, Andrew Stanton, and Lee Unkrich were presented with the Golden Lion award for Lifetime Achievement by the Venice Film Festival. As part of the ceremony, the physical award was handed to Lucasfilm's founder, George Lucas. Pixar got its start in 1974 when New York Institute of Technology's (NYIT) founder, Alexander Schure, who was also the owner of a traditional animation studio, established the Computer Graphics Lab (CGL), recruited computer scientists who shared his ambitions about creating the world's first computer-animated film. Edwin Catmull and Malcolm Blanchard were the first to be hired and were soon joined by Alvy Ray Smith and David DiFrancesco some months later, which were the four original members of the Computer Graphics Lab.[9] Schure kept pouring money into the computer graphics lab, an estimated $15  million, giving the group everything they desired and driving NYIT into serious financial troubles.[10] Eventually, the group realized they needed to work in a real film studio in order to reach their goal. Francis Ford Coppola then invited Smith to his house for a three-day media conference, where Coppola and George Lucas shared their visions for the future of digital moviemaking.[11] When Lucas approached them and offered them a job at his studio, six employees decided to move over to Lucasfilm. During the following months, they gradually resigned from CGL, found temporary jobs for about a year to avoid making Schure suspicious, before joining the Graphics Group at Lucasfilm.[12][13] The Graphics Group, which was one-third of the Computer Division of Lucasfilm, was launched in 1979 with the hiring of Catmull from NYIT,[14] where he was in charge of the Computer Graphics Lab. He was then reunited with Smith, who also made the journey from NYIT to Lucasfilm, and was made the director of the Graphics Group. At NYIT, the researchers pioneered many of the CG foundation techniques—in particular, the invention of the alpha channel (by Catmull and Smith).[15] Over the next several years, the CGL would produce a few frames of an experimental film called The Works. After moving to Lucasfilm, the team worked on creating the precursor to RenderMan, called REYES (for "renders everything you ever saw") and developed several critical technologies for CG—including particle effects and various animation tools. John Lasseter was hired to the Lucasfilm team for a week in late 1983 with the title "interface designer"; he animated the short film The Adventures of André & Wally B.[16] In the next few years, a designer suggested naming a new digital compositing computer the "Picture Maker". Smith suggested that the laser-based device have a catchier name, and came up with "Pixer", which after a meeting was changed to "Pixar".[17] In 1982, the team began working on special-effects film sequences with Industrial Light & Magic. After years of research, and key milestones such as the Genesis Effect in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and the Stained Glass Knight in Young Sherlock Holmes,[14] the group, which then numbered 40 individuals, was spun out as a corporation in February 1986 by Catmull and Smith. Among the 38 remaining employees, there were also Malcolm Blanchard, David DiFrancesco, Ralph Guggenheim, and Bill Reeves, who had been part of the team since the days of NYIT. Tom Duff, also an NYIT member, would later join Pixar after its formation.[2] With Lucas' 1983 divorce, which coincided with the sudden dropoff in revenues from Star Wars licenses following the release of Return of the Jedi, they knew he would most likely sell the whole Graphics Group. Worried that the employees would be lost to them if that happened, which would prevent the creation of the first computer-animated movie, they concluded that the best way to keep the team together was to turn the group into an independent company. But Moore's Law also said that the first film was still some years away, and they needed to focus on a proper product while waiting for computers to become powerful enough. Eventually, they decided they should be a hardware company in the meantime, with their Pixar Image Computer as the core product, a system primarily sold to government agencies and the scientific and medical community.[2][10][18] they also used SGI computers. In 1983, Nolan Bushnell founded a new computer-guided animation studio called Kadabrascope as a subsidiary of his Chuck E. Cheese's Pizza Time Theatres company (PTT), which was founded in 1977. Only one major project was made out of the new studio, an animated Christmas special for NBC starring Chuck E. Cheese and other PTT mascots; known as "Chuck E. Cheese: The Christmas That Almost Wasn't". The animation movement would be made using tweening instead of traditional cel animation. After the North American Video Game Crash of 1983, Bushnell started selling some subsidiaries of PTT to keep the business afloat. Sente Technologies (another division, was founded to have games distributed in PTT stores) was sold to Bally Games and Kadabrascope was sold to Lucasfilm. The Kadabrascope assets were combined with the Computer Division of Lucasfilm.[19] Coincidentally, one of Steve Jobs's first jobs was under Bushnell in 1973 as a technician at his other company Atari, which Bushnell sold to Warner Communications in 1976 to focus on PTT.[20] PTT would later go bankrupt in 1985 and be acquired by ShowBiz Pizza Place. The newly independent Pixar (1986) was headed by Edwin Catmull as President and Alvy Ray Smith as Executive Vice President. While looking for investors, Steve Jobs showed interest, but initially, Lucas found his offer too low. Yet he eventually accepted after it turned out to be impossible to find other investors. At that point Smith and Catmull had been turned down 45 times; thirty-five venture capitalists and 10 large corporations had declined.[21] Jobs, who had recently been fired from Apple,[2] and was now founder and CEO of the new computer company NeXT. On February 3, 1986, he paid $5  million of his own money to George Lucas for technology rights and invested $5 million cash as capital into the company, joining the board of directors as chairman.[2][22] In 1985, while still at Lucasfilm, they had made a deal with the Japanese publisher Shogakukan to make a computer-animated movie called Monkey, based on the Monkey King. The project continued sometime after they became a separate company in 1986, but in the end, it became clear that the technology was simply not there yet. The computers were not powerful enough and the budget would be too high. So it was decided to focus on the computer hardware business some more years while waiting till Moore's law made a computer-animated feature possible.[23][24] At the time Walt Disney Studios was interested and eventually bought and used the Pixar Image Computer and custom software written by Pixar as part of their Computer Animation Production System (CAPS) project, to migrate the laborious ink and paint part of the 2D animation process to a more automated method. In a bid to drive sales of the system and increase the company's capital, Jobs suggested to make the system available to mainstream users and released the product to the market. Pixar employee John Lasseter, who had long been working on not-for-profit short demonstration animations, such as Luxo Jr. (1986) to show off the device's capabilities, premiered his creations at SIGGRAPH, the computer graphics industry's largest convention, to great fanfare.[25] However, the Image Computer never sold well.[25] Inadequate sales threatened to put the company out of business as financial losses grew. Jobs invested more and more money in exchange for an increased stake in the company, reducing the proportion of management and employee ownership until eventually, his total investment of $50 million gave him control of the entire company. In 1989, Lasseter's growing animation department, originally composed of just four people (Lasseter, Bill Reeves, Eben Ostby, and Sam Leffler), was turned into a division that produced computer-animated commercials for outside companies.[1][26][27] In April 1990, Pixar sold its hardware division, including all proprietary hardware technology and imaging software, to Vicom Systems, and transferred 18 of Pixar's approximately 100 employees. That same year, Pixar moved from San Rafael to Richmond, California.[28] Pixar released some of its software tools on the open market for Macintosh and Windows systems. RenderMan was one of the leading 3D packages of the early 1990s, and Typestry was a special-purpose 3D text renderer that competed with RayDream add depth. During this period Pixar continued its successful relationship with Walt Disney Animation Studios, a studio whose corporate parent would ultimately become its most important partner. As 1991 began, however, the layoff of 30 employees in the company's computer hardware department—including the company's president, Chuck Kolstad,[29] reduced the total number of employees to just 42, essentially its original number.[30] Yet Pixar made a historic $26  million deal with Disney to produce three computer-animated feature films, the first of which was Toy Story, a concept which was the product of the technological limitations CGI struggled with at the time.[31] By then the software programmers, who were doing RenderMan and IceMan, and Lasseter's animation department, which made television commercials (and four Luxo Jr. shorts for Sesame Street the same year), were all that remained of Pixar.[32] Despite the total income from these projects the company continued to lose money and Jobs, as chairman of the board and now the full owner, often considered selling it. Even as late as 1994 Jobs contemplated selling Pixar to other companies such as Hallmark Cards, Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen, and Oracle CEO and co-founder Larry Ellison.[33] Only after learning from New York critics that Toy Story would probably be a hit—and confirming that Disney would distribute it for the 1995 Christmas season—did he decide to give Pixar another chance.[34][35] For the first time, he also took an active leadership role in the company and made himself CEO.[citation needed] Toy Story went on to gross more than $373 million worldwide[36] and, when Pixar held its initial public offering on November 29, 1995, it exceeded Netscape's as the biggest IPO of the year. In only its first half-hour of trading Pixar stock shot from $22 to $45, delaying trading because of un-matched buy orders. Shares climbed to $49 before closing the day at $39.[37] During the 1990s and 2000s, Pixar gradually developed the "Pixar Braintrust," the studio's primary creative development process, in which all directors, writers, and lead storyboard artists at the studio look at each other's projects on a regular basis and give each other very candid "notes" (the industry term for constructive criticism).[38] The Braintrust operates under a philosophy of a "filmmaker-driven studio," in which creatives help each other move their films forward through a process somewhat like peer review, as opposed to the traditional Hollywood approach of an "executive-driven studio" in which directors are micromanaged through "mandatory notes" from development executives ranking above the producers.[39][40] According to Catmull, it evolved out of the working relationship between Lasseter, Stanton, Docter, Unkrich, and Joe Ranft on Toy Story.[38] As a result of the success of Toy Story, Pixar built a new studio at the Emeryville campus which was designed by PWP Landscape Architecture and opened in November 2000. Pixar and Disney had disagreements over the production of Toy Story 2. Originally intended as a straight-to-video release (and thus not part of Pixar's three-picture deal), the film was eventually upgraded to a theatrical release during production. Pixar demanded that the film then be counted toward the three-picture agreement, but Disney refused.[41] Though profitable for both, Pixar later complained that the arrangement was not equitable. Pixar was responsible for creation and production, while Disney handled marketing and distribution. Profits and production costs were split 50-50, but Disney exclusively owned all story, character and sequel rights and also collected a 10- to 15-percent distribution fee. The lack of story, character and sequel rights was perhaps the most onerous aspect to Pixar and set the stage for a contentious relationship.[42] The two companies attempted to reach a new agreement for ten months before it fell through in January 2004. The new deal would be only for distribution, as Pixar intended to control production and own the resulting story, character and sequel rights themselves while Disney would own the right of first refusal to distribute any sequels. Pixar also wanted to finance their films on their own and collect 100 percent of the profits, paying Disney only the 10- to 15-percent distribution fee.[43] More importantly, as part of any distribution agreement with Disney, Pixar demanded control over films already in production under their old agreement, including The Incredibles (2004) and Cars (2006). Disney considered these conditions unacceptable, but Pixar would not concede.[43] Disagreements between Steve Jobs and then-Disney chairman and CEO Michael Eisner made the negotiations more difficult than they otherwise might have been. They broke down completely in mid-2004, with Disney forming Circle 7 Animation and Jobs declaring that Pixar was actively seeking partners other than Disney.[44] Despite this announcement and several talks with Warner Bros., Columbia Pictures, and 20th Century Fox, Pixar did not enter negotiations with other distributors,[45] although a Warner Bros. spokesperson told CNN, "We would love to be in business with Pixar. They are a great company."[43] After a lengthy hiatus, negotiations between the two companies resumed following the departure of Eisner from Disney in September 2005. In preparation for potential fallout between Pixar and Disney, Jobs announced in late 2004 that Pixar would no longer release movies at the Disney-dictated November time frame, but during the more lucrative early summer months. This would also allow Pixar to release DVDs for their major releases during the Christmas shopping season. An added benefit of delaying Cars from November 4, 2005, to June 9, 2006, was to extend the time frame remaining on the Pixar-Disney contract, to see how things would play out between the two companies.[45] Pending the Disney acquisition of Pixar, the two companies created a distribution deal for the intended 2007 release of Ratatouille, if the acquisition fell through, to ensure that this one film would still be released through Disney's distribution channels. In contrast to the earlier Pixar deal, Ratatouille was meant to remain a Pixar property and Disney would have received only a distribution fee. The completion of Disney's Pixar acquisition, however, nullified this distribution arrangement.[46] In January 2006, Disney ultimately agreed to buy Pixar for approximately $7.4 billion in an all-stock deal.[47] Following Pixar shareholder approval, the acquisition was completed January 25, 2006. The transaction catapulted Jobs, who owned 49.65% of total share interest in Pixar, to Disney's largest individual shareholder with 7%, valued at $3.9 billion, and a new seat on its board of directors.[5][48] Jobs's new Disney holdings exceeded holdings belonging to ex-CEO Michael Eisner, the previous top shareholder, who still held 1.7%; and Disney Director Emeritus Roy E. Disney, who held almost 1% of the corporation's shares. Pixar shareholders received 2.3 shares of Disney common stock for each share of Pixar common stock redeemed. As part of the deal, John Lasseter, by then Executive Vice President, became Chief Creative Officer (reporting directly to President and CEO Robert Iger and consulting with Disney Director Roy E. Disney) of both Pixar and Walt Disney Animation Studios (including its division DisneyToon Studios), as well as the Principal Creative Adviser at Walt Disney Imagineering, which designs and builds the company's theme parks.[48] Catmull retained his position as President of Pixar, while also becoming President of Walt Disney Animation Studios, reporting to Iger and Dick Cook, chairman of the Walt Disney Studios. Jobs's position as Pixar's chairman and chief executive officer was abolished, and instead, he took a place on the Disney board of directors.[49] After the deal closed in January 2006, Lasseter revealed that Iger had realized Disney needed to buy Pixar while watching a parade at the opening of Hong Kong Disneyland in September 2005.[50] Iger noticed that of all the Disney characters in the parade, not one was a character that Disney had created within the last ten years since all the newer ones had been created by Pixar.[50] Upon returning to Burbank, Iger commissioned a financial analysis that confirmed that Disney had actually lost money on animation for the past decade, then presented that information to the board of directors at his first board meeting after being promoted from COO to CEO, and the board, in turn, authorized him to explore the possibility of a deal with Pixar.[51] Lasseter and Catmull were wary when the topic of Disney buying Pixar first came up, but Jobs asked them to give Iger a chance (based on his own experience negotiating with Iger in summer 2005 for the rights to ABC shows for the fifth-generation iPod Classic),[52] and in turn, Iger convinced them of the sincerity of his epiphany that Disney really needed to re-focus on animation.[50] Lasseter and Catmull's oversight of both the Disney Feature Animation and Pixar studios did not mean that the two studios were merging, however. In fact, additional conditions were laid out as part of the deal to ensure that Pixar remained a separate entity, a concern that analysts had expressed about the Disney deal.[53][page needed] Some of those conditions were that Pixar HR policies would remain intact, including the lack of employment contracts. Also, the Pixar name was guaranteed to continue, and the studio would remain in its current Emeryville, California, location with the "Pixar" sign. Finally, branding of films made post-merger would be "Disney•Pixar" (beginning with Cars).[54] Jim Morris, producer of WALL-E (2008), became general manager of Pixar. In this new position, Morris took charge of the day-to-day running of the studio facilities and products.[55] After a few years, Lasseter and Catmull were able to successfully transfer the basic principles of the Pixar Braintrust to Disney Animation Studio, although meetings of the Disney Story Trust are reportedly "more polite" than those of the Pixar Braintrust.[56] Catmull later explained that after the merger, to maintain the studios' separate identities and cultures (notwithstanding the fact of common ownership and common senior management), he and Lasseter "drew a hard line" that each studio was solely responsible for its own projects and would not be allowed to borrow personnel from or lend tasks out to the other.[57][58] That rule ensures that each studio maintains "local ownership" of projects and can be proud of its own work.[57][58] Thus, for example, when Pixar had issues with Ratatouille and Disney Animation had issues with Bolt (2008), "nobody bailed them out" and each studio was required "to solve the problem on its own" even when they knew there were personnel at the other studio who theoretically could have helped.[57][58] In November 2014, Morris was promoted to president of Pixar, while his counterpart at Disney Animation, general manager Andrew Millstein, was also promoted to president of that studio.[59] Both continue to report to Catmull, who retains the title of president of both Disney Animation and Pixar.[59] On November 21, 2017, Lasseter announced that he was taking a six-month leave of absence after acknowledging what he called "missteps" in his behavior with employees in a memo to staff. According to The Hollywood Reporter and The Washington Post, Lasseter had a history of alleged sexual misconduct towards employees.[60][61][62] On June 8, 2018, it was announced that Lasseter would leave Disney Animation and Pixar at the end of the year, but would take on a consulting role until then.[63] Pete Docter was announced as Lasseter's replacement as chief creative officer of Pixar on June 19, 2018.[64] On October 23, 2018, it was announced that Catmull would be retiring. He stayed in an adviser role until July 2019.[65] On January 18, 2019, it was announced that Lee Unkrich would be leaving Pixar after 25 years.[66] On April 20, 2010, Pixar opened Pixar Canada in the downtown area of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.[67] The roughly 2,000 square meters studio produced seven short films based on Toy Story and Cars characters. In October 2013, the studio was closed down to refocus Pixar's efforts at its main headquarters.[68] When Steve Jobs, chief executive officer of Apple Inc. and Pixar, and John Lasseter, then-executive vice president of Pixar, decided to move their studios from a leased space in Point Richmond, California, to larger quarters of their own, they chose a 20-acre site in Emeryville, California,[69] formerly occupied by Del Monte Foods, Inc. The first building of several, a high-tech structure designed by Bohlin Cywinski Jackson,[70] has special foundations and generators to ensure continued film production, even through major earthquakes. The character of the building is intended to abstractly recall Emeryville's industrial past. The two-story steel-and-masonry building is a collaborative space with many pathways. The digital revolution in filmmaking was driven by applied mathematics, including computational physics and geometry.[71] In 2008, this led Pixar senior scientist Tony DeRose to offer to host the second Julia Robinson Mathematics Festival at the Emeryville campus.[72] While some of Pixar's first animators were former cel animators including John Lasseter, they also came from computer animation or were fresh college graduates.[73] A large number of animators that make up the animation department at Pixar were hired around the time the studio released A Bug's Life (1998), Monsters, Inc. (2001) and Finding Nemo (2003). Although Toy Story was a successful film, it was Pixar's first feature film at the time, becoming the first major computer-animation studio to successfully produce theatrical feature films. The majority of the animation industry was (and still is) located in Los Angeles while Pixar is located 350 miles (560 km) north in the San Francisco Bay Area. Also, traditional hand-drawn animation was still the dominant medium for feature animated films. With the scarcity of Los Angeles-based animators willing to move their families so far north to give up traditional animation and try computer animation, Pixar's new hires at this time either came directly from college or had worked outside feature animation. For those who had traditional animation skills, the Pixar animation software Marionette was designed so that traditional animators would require a minimum amount of training before becoming productive.[73] In an interview with PBS talk show host Tavis Smiley,[74] Lasseter said that Pixar's films follow the same theme of self-improvement as the company itself has: with the help of friends or family, a character ventures out into the real world and learns to appreciate his friends and family. At the core, Lasseter said, "it's gotta be about the growth of the main character and how he changes."[74] As of 2020[update], every Pixar feature film has included a character voiced by John Ratzenberger, who had famously starred in the TV show Cheers. Pixar paid tribute to their "good luck charm" in the end credits of Cars (2006) by parodying scenes from three of their earlier films, replacing all of the characters with motor vehicles. After the third scene, Mack (his character in Cars) realizes that the same actor has been voicing characters in every film. Due to the traditions that have occurred within the films and shorts such as anthropomorphic creatures and objects as well as easter egg crossovers between films and shorts that have been spotted by Pixar fans, a blog post entitled The Pixar Theory was published in 2013 by Jon Negroni proposing that all of the characters within the Pixar universe were related. It is all surrounded around Boo from Monsters Inc. and the witch from Brave.[75][76][77] Toy Story 2 was originally commissioned by Disney as a 60-minute direct-to-video film. Expressing doubts about the strength of the material, John Lasseter convinced the Pixar team to start from scratch and make the sequel their third full-length feature film. Following the release of Toy Story 2 in 1999, Pixar and Disney had a gentlemen's agreement that Disney would not make any sequels without Pixar's involvement despite their own right to do so. After the two companies were unable to agree on a new deal, Disney announced in 2004 they would plan to move forward on sequels with/without Pixar and put Toy Story 3 into pre-production at Disney's then-new CGI division Circle 7 Animation. However, when Lasseter was placed in charge of all Disney and Pixar animation following Disney's acquisition of Pixar in 2006, he put all sequels on hold and Toy Story 3 was canceled. In May 2006, it was announced that Toy Story 3 was back in pre-production with a new plot and under Pixar's control. The film was released on June 18, 2010, as Pixar's eleventh feature film. Shortly after announcing the resurrection of Toy Story 3, Lasseter fueled speculation on further sequels by saying, "If we have a great story, we'll do a sequel."[78] Cars 2, Pixar's first non-Toy Story sequel, was officially announced in April 2008 and released on June 24, 2011 as their twelfth. Monsters University, a prequel to Monsters, Inc. (2001), was announced in April 2010 and initially set for release in November 2012;[79] the release date was pushed to June 21, 2013 due to Pixar's past success with summer releases, according to a Disney executive.[80] In June 2011, Tom Hanks, who voiced Woody in the Toy Story series, implied that Toy Story 4 was "in the works," although it had not yet been confirmed by the studio.[81][82] In April 2013, Finding Dory, a sequel to Finding Nemo, was announced for a June 17, 2016 release.[83] In March 2014, Incredibles 2 and Cars 3 were announced as films in development.[84] In November 2014, Toy Story 4 was confirmed to be in development with Lasseter serving as director.[85] However, in July 2017, Lasseter announced that he had stepped down, leaving Josh Cooley as sole director.[86] Released in June 2019, Toy Story 4 ranks among the 40 top-grossing films in American cinema.[87] Toy Story was the first Pixar film to be adapted for television as Buzz Lightyear of Star Command film and TV series on the UPN television network, now The CW. Cars became the second with the help of Cars Toons, a series of 3-to-5-minute short films running between regular Disney Channel show intervals and featuring Mater (a tow truck voiced by comedian Larry the Cable Guy).[88] Between 2013 and 2014, Pixar released its first two television specials, Toy Story of Terror![89] and Toy Story That Time Forgot. Monsters at Work, a television series spin-off of Monsters, Inc., is currently in development for Disney+.[90][91] All Pixar films and shorts to date have been computer-animated features, but so far, WALL-E (2008) has been the only Pixar film not to be completely animated as it featured a small amount of live-action footage while Day & Night (2010) and Kitbull (2019) are the only two shorts to feature 2D animation. 1906, the live-action film by Brad Bird based on a screenplay and novel by James Dalessandro about the 1906 earthquake, was in development but has since been abandoned by Bird and Pixar. Bird has stated that he was "interested in moving into the live-action realm with some projects" while "staying at Pixar [because] it's a very comfortable environment for me to work in". In June 2018, Bird mentioned the possibility of adapting the novel as a TV series, and the earthquake sequence as a live-action feature film.[92] The Toy Story Toons short Hawaiian Vacation (2011) also includes the fish and shark as live-action. Jim Morris, president of Pixar, produced Disney's John Carter (2012) which Andrew Stanton co-wrote and directed.[93] Pixar's creative heads were consulted to fine tune the script for the 2011 live-action film The Muppets.[94] Similarly, Pixar assisted in the story development of Disney's The Jungle Book (2016) as well as providing suggestions for the film's end credits sequence.[95] Both Pixar and Mark Andrews were given a "Special Thanks" credit in the film's credits.[96] Additionally, many Pixar animators, both former and current, were recruited for a traditional hand-drawn animated sequence for the 2018 film Mary Poppins Returns.[97] Pixar representatives have also assisted in the English localization of several Studio Ghibli films, mainly those from Hayao Miyazaki.[98] Pixar developed a live-action hidden camera reality show, titled Pixar In Real Life, for Disney+.[99] Soul, directed by Pete Docter, will be released on November 20, 2020.[100] A statement from the studio said "The film takes you on a journey from the streets of New York City to the cosmic realms to discover the answers to life's most important questions."[101] Four further films, with details yet to be revealed, have been announced. The first, titled Luca, and directed by Enrico Casarosa, will be released on June 18, 2021,[102] followed by scheduled releases on March 11, June 17, 2022[103] and June 16, 2023.[104] The Pixar Co-op Program, a part of the Pixar University professional development program, allows their animators to use Pixar resources to produce independent films.[105][106] The first 3D project accepted to the program was Borrowed Time (2016); all previously accepted films were live-action.[107] Pixar Animation Studios has done advertising though Tropicana came the first one to use the Pixar animation. The Levi Strauss and Company advert, Woman Getting what she Wants, was animated by Pixar and the Luxo Ball was used as one of the Marble's. it would not be countless with many more Adverts. The Pillsbury Company advert for the Biscuits were used. Kellogg adverts for the Kellogg's All-Bran cereal was used by Pixar. Since December 2005, Pixar has held exhibitions celebrating the art and artists of themselves over their first twenty years in animation.[108] Pixar celebrated its 20th anniversary in 2006 with the release of its seventh feature film Cars, and held two exhibitions from April to June 2010 at Science Centre Singapore in Jurong East, Singapore and the London Science Museum in London.[109] It was their first time holding an exhibition in Singapore. The exhibition highlights consist of work-in-progress sketches from various Pixar productions, clay sculptures of their characters and an autostereoscopic short showcasing a 3D version of the exhibition pieces which is projected through four projectors. Another highlight is the Zoetrope, where visitors of the exhibition are shown figurines of Toy Story characters "animated" in real-life through the zoetrope.[109] Pixar celebrated its 25th anniversary in 2011 with the release of its twelfth feature film Cars 2, and held an exhibition at the Oakland Museum of California from July 2010 until January 2011.[110] The exhibition tour debuted in Hong Kong and was held at the Hong Kong Heritage Museum in Sha Tin from March 27 to July 11, 2011.[111][112] In 2013, the exhibition was held in the EXPO in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. For 6 months from July 6, 2012 until January 6, 2013 the city of Bonn (Germany) hosted the public showing,[113] On November 16, 2013, the exhibition moved to the Art Ludique museum in Paris, France with a scheduled run until March 2, 2014.[114] The exhibition moved to three Spanish cities later in 2014 and 2015: Madrid (held in CaixaForum from March 21 until June 22),[115] Barcelona (held also in Caixaforum from February until May) and Zaragoza.[116] Pixar: 25 Years of Animation includes all of the artwork from Pixar: 20 Years of Animation, plus art from Ratatouille, WALL-E, Up and Toy Story 3. The Science Behind Pixar is a travelling exhibition that first opened on June 28, 2015, at the Museum of Science in Boston, Massachusetts. It was developed by the Museum of Science in collaboration with Pixar. The exhibit features forty interactive elements that explain the production pipeline at Pixar. They are divided into eight sections, each demonstrating a step in the filmmaking process: Modeling, Rigging, Surfaces, Sets & Cameras, Animation, Simulation, Lighting, and Rendering. Before visitors enter the exhibit, they watch a short video at an introductory theater showing Mr. Ray from Finding Nemo and Roz from Monsters, Inc.. The exhibition closed on January 10, 2016 and was moved to the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where it ran from March 12 to September 5. Afterwards, it moved to the California Science Center in Los Angeles, California and was open from October 15, 2016 to April 9, 2017. It made another stop at the Science Museum of Minnesota in St. Paul, Minnesota from May 27 through September 4, 2017.[117] The exhibition opened in Canada on July 1, 2017, at the TELUS World of Science – Edmonton (TWOSE). Pixar: The Design of Story was an exhibition held at the Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum in New York City from October 8, 2015 to September 11, 2016.[118][119] The museum also hosted a presentation and conversation with John Lasseter on November 12, 2015 entitled "Design By Hand: Pixar's John Lasseter".[118] Pixar celebrated its 30th anniversary in 2016 with the release of its seventeenth feature film Finding Dory, and put together another milestone exhibition. The exhibition first opened at the Museum of Contemporary Art in Tokyo, Japan from March 5, 2016 to May 29, 2016. It subsequently moved to the Nagasaki Prefectural Art Museum National Museum of History, Dongdaemun Design Plaza where it ended on March 5, 2018 at the Hong Kong Heritage Museum.[120] Coordinates: 37°49′58″N 122°17′02″W / 37.8327°N 122.2838°W / 37.8327; -122.2838

Shannon Airport

Shannon Airport (Irish: Aerfort na Sionainne)[4][5] (IATA: SNN, ICAO: EINN) is an international airport located in County Clare in the Republic of Ireland. It is adjacent to the Shannon Estuary and lies halfway between Ennis and Limerick. The airport is the third busiest airport in the Republic of Ireland, and the fifth busiest on the island. In 2018, Shannon Airport handled 1,864,762 passengers, a 6.5% annual increase.[citation needed] The airport has a history of pioneering in global aviation with the first transatlantic proving flight in 1945, the world's first duty-free airport opening in 1947 and Europe's first United States border preclearance facility opening in 1986. It was a busy refuelling stop for many international carriers in the 1960s, making it a gateway between Europe and the Americas.[6] At 3,199 metres (10,495 ft), Shannon has the longest runway in Ireland (which allowed it to be a designated alternative landing site for the Space Shuttle).[7] In the late 1930s, transatlantic air traffic was dominated by flying boats, and a flying boat terminal was located at Foynes on the south side of the Shannon Estuary. However, it was realised that changing technology would require a permanent runway and airport. In 1936, the Government of Ireland confirmed that it would develop a 3.1-square-kilometre (1.2 sq mi) site at Rineanna for the country's first transatlantic airport. The land on which the airport was to be built was boggy, and on 8 October 1936 work began to drain the land. In July 1939, a SABENA Savoia-Marchetti S.73 from Brussels via Croydon Airport was the first commercial flight to use the Rineanna airfield.[8] By 1942 a serviceable airport had been established and was named Shannon Airport. By 1945 the existing runways at Shannon were extended to allow transatlantic flights to take off. When World War II ended, the airport was ready to be used by the many new post-war commercial airlines of Europe and North America. On 16 September 1945 the first transatlantic proving flight, a Pan Am DC-4, landed at Shannon from Gander.[9] On 24 October 1945, the first scheduled commercial flight, an American Overseas Airlines DC-4, Flagship New England, stopped at the airport on the New York City–Gander–Shannon–London route. An accident involving President Airlines on 10 September 1961 resulted in the loss of 83 lives. The Douglas DC-6 aircraft crashed into the River Shannon while leaving Shannon Airport for Gander. The number of international carriers rose sharply in succeeding years as Shannon became well known as the gateway between Europe and the Americas; limited aircraft range necessitated refuelling stops on many journeys. Shannon became the most convenient stopping point before and after a trip across the Atlantic. Additionally, during the Cold War, many transatlantic flights from the Soviet Union stopped here for refuelling, because Shannon was the westernmost non-NATO airport on the European side of the Atlantic. On September 30, 1994 Shannon was the site of the "circling over Shannon" diplomatic incident involving Russian President Boris Yeltsin. Ryanair increased services and passenger numbers at the airport through 2008. In 2007, Shannon carried 3.2 million passengers. However, after a disagreement with the Dublin Airport Authority (DAA) in 2008, Ryanair announced that the number of based aircraft would reduce from four to one and 150 jobs would be lost. Services were cut by 75% and 32 Ryanair routes from the airport were reduced to eight. CityJet launched a twice-daily route to Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport in 2008 when Aer Lingus closed its London Heathrow flights. The company based an Avro RJ85 at Shannon. More services were under consideration, including a route to London City Airport; however CityJet pulled out of Shannon in October 2009 after Aer Lingus reinstated its Heathrow flights. In December 2012, it was announced that Shannon Airport would separate from the Dublin Airport Authority, who still own Dublin and Cork airports. On 31 December 2012 at 11:59 pm, Shannon Airport became a publicly owned commercial airport and is now operated and run by the Shannon Airport Authority plc. Shannon announced a target in 2012 to grow its passenger numbers to 2.5 million annually within five years. However, Shannon has fallen short of its stated targeted figure with just 1.74 million flying through the airport in 2017.[10] In March 2013, the new company appointed Neil Pakey as its first CEO. Traffic figures for June 2013 report an 8% increase on the previous year, the first time a traffic increase has been recorded in three years. On 21 March 2013, Ryanair announced a new twice-weekly route to Alicante, Spain to begin on 5 June for the summer months. That brought Shannon's total to 33 seasonal scheduled summer routes. In August 2013 Aer Lingus announced a 1x weekly service to Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain every Saturday during the winter months using an A320. In October 2013, United Airlines confirmed it will increase capacity by 88% on its Shannon-Chicago route for 2014. In late 2013, Aer Lingus announced 2 new routes to Málaga, Spain (two weekly) and to Bristol, UK (one daily). Ryanair also announced 8 new routes from Shannon to continental Europe. The new routes began from the start of April 2014, and a second Boeing 737-800 was based at Shannon to accommodate the extra 300,000 passengers a year it would bring in. The destinations announced were Berlin Schonefeld, Beauvais, Memmingen, Warsaw Modlin, Kraków, Nice, Faro, and Fuerteventura. On 4 July 2014, the "Bank of Ireland Runway Night Run" featured 1,200 people running along Shannon's runway to raise money for charity.[11] In late 2014, Aer Lingus Regional operator Stobart Air said that they would close down their Shannon base in early 2015. They returned in June 2015 operating 6 flights weekly Birmingham service followed by 6 flights weekly Edinburgh service. In late 2015, they announced a new CEO for Shannon, Matthew Thomas. Ryanair announced that it will be ending its Paris and Memmingen routes in late 2016, and it also reduced its Manchester and London Stansted routes. Ryanair is aiming for 720,000 passengers in Summer 2017 even though that they were close to 800,000 in Summer 2016. In October 2016, SAS announced a new route to Stockholm from 1 August 2017 to 7 October 2017. Shortly after that, Lufthansa announced a weekly service to Frankfurt running from April to October in 2017. In September 2017 Ryanair announced a new Route to Reus. It will run through summer 2018 operating 2x weekly (Tuesdays and Saturdays) replacing the route to Berlin. The same day, Air Canada announced a new 4x weekly service to Toronto with the Boeing 737 MAX. In February 2018, Ryanair announced it would resume flights to Bristol and Liverpool from May 2018. In late 2018, Ryanair announced a new 2x weekly service to Ibiza, and the resumption of flights to East Midlands, both beginning in April 2019. The East Midlands, Bristol and Ibiza flights are all being ceased at the end of the 2019 summer season due to fears of Brexit and the 737 MAX groundings.[citation needed] Due to the 737 MAX groundings, Air Canada and Norwegian Airlines suspended their routes to Shannon. This reduced the number of passenger by 120,000. On 23 October 2019, Lauda announced that they will launch a twice weekly flight to Shannon from their base in Vienna operating every Wednesday and Saturday. On 6 November 2019, Aer Lingus announced that they were launching 2 new routes from Shannon; the 4 times weekly flight to Paris Charles de Gaule and a 3 times weekly flight to Barcelona. Both flights are operating seasonally. The airport handled 1,864,762 passengers in 2018. This number is the highest passenger numbers since gaining independence from the DAA. In 1969, it was announced that a new government agency, Aer Rianta (now the Dublin Airport Authority), would be given responsibility for Shannon Airport. Passenger numbers at the airport reached 460,000 that year. With the increase in passengers and the introduction of the Boeing 747, it was decided that a new enlarged terminal was needed. The first commercial operation of a 747 took place in April 1971, while the new terminal officially opened in May that year. In 1974, a major increase in fuel prices had a dramatic effect on transit traffic. During the 1990s, the airport began to struggle. The bilateral agreement with the United States was renegotiated, resulting in fewer planes being required to stop over in Shannon (see Shannon Stopover below). However, 1996 saw the beginning of Continental Airlines flying between Dublin, Shannon and Newark, New Jersey. With the demise of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s, Aeroflot began to suffer, which was a big loss to the airport. Aeroflot had brought 250,000 passengers a year through Shannon.[12] Shannon began to rebound in the late 1990s with the success of the Irish economy, the improving situation in Northern Ireland and an influx of American tourists. By the end of the decade Shannon had passenger numbers of 2.2 million and in the year 2000, a new £40 million terminal extension was opened. Shannon continued to expand during the Celtic Tiger years with many services operated to the U.S. and Canada. The first Air Services Agreement with the United States in 1945 only permitted flights to Shannon and only permitted Irish airlines to serve Boston, Chicago and New York. In 1971, the US Civil Aeronautics Board announced that unless US planes were allowed to operate into Dublin Airport they proposed to ban Aer Lingus from landing in New York. Eventually an agreement was reached which allowed one US carrier, TWA, to service Dublin Airport through Shannon. In 1990, the U.S.-Irish bilateral agreement was changed to allow Irish airlines to serve Los Angeles and additional U.S. airlines to serve Dublin via Shannon. An amendment in 1993 allowed airlines to provide direct transatlantic services to Dublin, but 50% of transatlantic flights had to either originate or stop over in Shannon. In 2005, an agreement was reached regarding a transitional period. Beginning in November 2006 and ending in April 2008, the agreement gradually eliminated restrictions on cargo services. For passenger service, it reduced the stopover requirement and allowed Irish airlines to serve three additional U.S. destinations. Furthermore, it was agreed that at the end of this period, no restrictions would be placed on scheduled services between any airport in the one country to any airport in the other. In 2007, the European Union and the U.S. announced that an agreement had been reached on an open skies aviation policy (EU–US Open Skies Agreement). The agreement came into effect from 30 March 2008, leading to the complete abolition of the Shannon Stopover, although this would have happened under the 2005 agreement anyway. Until 2020, the westbound flights of the British Airways business class-only flights between London City Airport and John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York stopped for fuel in Shannon to allow them to take off from the short runway of the London City Airport, which is located in the London Docklands area. This stop also allowed passengers to clear US Customs and Immigration in Shannon rather than at JFK. Introduced in 2009, two flights per day, one of which carried the flight number BA1, were operated using A318 aircraft capable of operating steep aproaches.[13][14] The flights were halved in 2017, and in 2020, amid their suspension due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was anounced that the flights would not be resumed.[15] In 1947, the "Customs Free Airport Act" established Shannon as the world's first duty-free airport, a move promoted by Brendan O'Regan; although "duty-free" shopping is not applicable any more for flights within the European Union, EU-bound passengers can still buy goods, but have to pay the normal taxes.[16] Shannon became a model for other duty-free facilities worldwide.[16] For most goods, passengers can buy the same goods regardless of their destination: the only difference will be made in charging VAT at check-out. An exception to this are tobacco products, as all tobacco products sold in Ireland need to have an excise stamp, while this does not apply for "real" duty-free tobacco. As the prices for tobacco in Ireland are among the highest in the world, there is little or no demand for tobacco at Irish airports for EU flights.[17] Shannon Airport has a history of foreign military use. A large part of its business in recent years has been military stopovers, currently almost all American; however, the airport was also frequently used by the Soviet military until the 1990s, since Ireland, having a traditional policy of military neutrality, was not a member of NATO. There were some restrictions, such as being carrying no arms, ammunition, or explosives, and that the flights in question did not form part of military exercises or operations. Shannon saw military transports throughout the Cold War and during the first Gulf War. In the aftermath of 11 September attacks, the Irish government offered the use of Shannon to the US government. When the United States invaded Iraq in 2003, the government still allowed United States Armed Forces to use the airport. This caused much controversy and was the subject of protests and a challenge brought to the High Court.[18] As of November 2008, approximately 1.2 million troops have passed through Shannon since the beginning of the Iraq War.[19] In 2012–2013, the military flight contracts are held by Omni Air International.[20] On 6 December 2005, the BBC programme Newsnight alleged that Shannon was used on at least 33 occasions by United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) flights, thought to be part of a US policy called extraordinary rendition. The New York Times reported the number to be 33, though referring to "Ireland" rather than Shannon, while Amnesty International has alleged the number of flights to be 50. Casement Aerodrome has seen similar claims. The United States and Ireland have denied these allegations.[21] The current airport terminal was opened on 27 March 2000 by then Minister of Transport Mary O'Rourke. This facility has 40 check-in desks, 5 baggage carousels and 14 boarding gates (including 6 airbridges). There are nearly 20 aircraft parking stands. The car parks can hold 4,200 cars.[22][failed verification] Much of the older landside section of the airport has been renovated with new 'Shannon Airport' branding. An airside area renovation and passenger separation project was completed in Summer 2010.[23] When Eirjet existed, its head office was located on the grounds of Shannon Airport.[24] In 1986, a United States border preclearance facility was opened at Shannon, eliminating the need to go through immigration on arrival in the United States.[25] In November 2008, it was announced that customs and agriculture inspections would be added, making Shannon the first airport in Europe to offer this service, and to enable passengers to arrive in New York on a "domestic" basis. To have these facilities put in place, a two-storey, 7,000 m2 (75,000 sq ft) extension to the main terminal building was constructed. The facility opened the morning of 5 August 2009.[25] As of September 2016, Shannon Airport also is the first and only airport in Europe to offer U.S. border preclearance to private aircraft.[26] The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights to and from Shannon:[27] The following cargo carriers are operating from Shannon Airport:[35] Shannon Airport is the end destination of the N19 national route, which connects to the N18/M18 Limerick–Ennis–Galway route. It is also the western end of European road E20. A dual carriageway section of the N19 was finished in 2004, bypassing the town of Shannon, and a new interchange and dual carriageway north to Ennis were completed in 2007 on the N18 (M18). It is approximately 25 kilometres (16 mi) west of Limerick and around 85 kilometres (53 mi) south of Galway. Dublin is approximately 223 kilometres (139 mi) away and Cork is around 125 kilometres (78 mi) away. Bus Éireann services from/to the airport: Car hire is available in the arrivals hall of the terminal building, with five car rental firms operating at the airport.[42] Private-hire coaches and buses are available from many operators such as Eirebus;[43] these need to be pre-booked and can transport passengers to any destination throughout Ireland. Shannon Airport offers both short-term and long-term parking within the airport with over 5,000 spaces available. All car parks operate 24 hours and are regularly patrolled by Airport Police. For many years a rail link to the airport (as a spur from the nearby Limerick–Ennis line) has been proposed,[44][45] but nothing has materialised. The nearest major stations (Ennis railway station and Limerick railway station) require bus or taxi to connect with. Sixmilebridge is the nearest station to the airport. *Official site Irish Rail -train timetables, bookings and operations Due to the location of Shannon, it receives a large number of emergency stopovers. As Shannon Airport has been built adjacent to the Shannon Estuary, it is likely to have problems with rising sea levels and high waters in the Shannon. The government is working on plans to protect both the airport and the town.[48] Media related to Shannon Airport at Wikimedia Commons

Nazi Germany

Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°24′E / 52.517°N 13.400°E / 52.517; 13.400 Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich[f] until 1943 and Greater German Reich[g] in 1943–45, was the German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) controlled the country which they transformed into a dictatorship. Under Hitler's rule, Germany quickly became a totalitarian state where nearly all aspects of life were controlled by the government. The Third Reich[h] – meaning "Third Realm" or "Third Empire" – alluded to the Nazis' conceit that Nazi Germany was the successor to the earlier Holy Roman Empire (800–1806) and German Empire (1871–1918). The Third Reich, which Hitler and the Nazis referred to as the Thousand Year Reich,[4] ended in May 1945 after just 12 years, when the Allies defeated Germany, ending World War II in Europe. On 30 January 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany, the head of government, by the President of the Weimar Republic, Paul von Hindenburg, the head of State. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all political opposition and consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934 and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the offices and powers of the Chancellery and Presidency. A national referendum held 19 August 1934 confirmed Hitler as sole Führer (Leader) of Germany. All power was centralised in Hitler's person and his word became the highest law. The government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of factions struggling for power and Hitler's favour. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazis restored economic stability and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy. Using deficit spending, the regime undertook a massive secret rearmament program and the construction of extensive public works projects, including the construction of Autobahnen (motorways). The return to economic stability boosted the regime's popularity. Racism, Nazi eugenics, and especially antisemitism, were central ideological features of the regime. The Germanic peoples were considered by the Nazis to be the master race, the purest branch of the Aryan race. Discrimination and the persecution of Jews and Romani people began in earnest after the seizure of power. The first concentration camps were established in March 1933. Jews and others deemed undesirable were imprisoned, and liberals, socialists, and communists were killed, imprisoned, or exiled. Christian churches and citizens that opposed Hitler's rule were oppressed and many leaders imprisoned. Education focused on racial biology, population policy, and fitness for military service. Career and educational opportunities for women were curtailed. Recreation and tourism were organised via the Strength Through Joy program, and the 1936 Summer Olympics showcased Germany on the international stage. Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, and Hitler's hypnotic oratory to influence public opinion. The government-controlled artistic expression, promoting specific art forms and banning or discouraging others. The Nazi regime dominated neighbours through military threats in the years leading up to war. Nazi Germany made increasingly aggressive territorial demands, threatening war if these were not met. It seized Austria and almost all of Czechoslovakia in 1938 and 1939. Germany signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union and invaded Poland on 1 September 1939, launching World War II in Europe. By early 1941, Germany controlled much of Europe. Reichskommissariats took control of conquered areas and a German administration was established in the remainder of Poland. Germany exploited the raw materials and labour of both its occupied territories and its allies. Genocide and mass murder became hallmarks of the regime. Starting in 1939, hundreds of thousands of German citizens with mental or physical disabilities were murdered in hospitals and asylums. Einsatzgruppen paramilitary death squads accompanied the German armed forces inside the occupied territories and conducted the mass killings of millions of Jews and other Holocaust victims. After 1941, millions of others were imprisoned, worked to death, or murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps. This genocide is known as the Holocaust. While the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941 was initially successful, the Soviet resurgence and entry of the United States into the war meant that the Wehrmacht (German armed forces) lost the initiative on the Eastern Front in 1943 and by late 1944 had been pushed back to the pre-1939 border. Large-scale aerial bombing of Germany escalated in 1944 and the Axis powers were driven back in Eastern and Southern Europe. After the Allied invasion of France, Germany was conquered by the Soviet Union from the east and the other Allies from the west, and capitulated in May 1945. Hitler's refusal to admit defeat led to massive destruction of German infrastructure and additional war-related deaths in the closing months of the war. The victorious Allies initiated a policy of denazification and put many of the surviving Nazi leadership on trial for war crimes at the Nuremberg trials. Common English terms for the German state in the Nazi era are "Nazi Germany" and "Third Reich". The latter, a translation of the Nazi propaganda term Drittes Reich, was first used in Das Dritte Reich, a 1923 book by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck. The book counted the Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) as the first Reich and the German Empire (1871–1918) as the second.[5] Germany was known as the Weimar Republic during the years 1919 to 1933. It was a republic with a semi-presidential system. The Weimar Republic faced numerous problems, including hyperinflation, political extremism (including violence from left- and right-wing paramilitaries), contentious relationships with the Allied victors of World War I, and a series of failed attempts at coalition government by divided political parties.[6] Severe setbacks to the German economy began after World War I ended, partly because of reparations payments required under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. The government printed money to make the payments and to repay the country's war debt, but the resulting hyperinflation led to inflated prices for consumer goods, economic chaos, and food riots.[7] When the government defaulted on their reparations payments in January 1923, French troops occupied German industrial areas along the Ruhr and widespread civil unrest followed.[8] The National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, NSDAP), commonly known as the Nazi Party, was founded in 1920. It was the renamed successor of the German Workers' Party (DAP) formed one year earlier, and one of several far-right political parties then active in Germany.[9] The Nazi Party platform included destruction of the Weimar Republic, rejection of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, radical antisemitism, and anti-Bolshevism.[10] They promised a strong central government, increased Lebensraum ("living space") for Germanic peoples, formation of a national community based on race, and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews, who would be stripped of their citizenship and civil rights.[11] The Nazis proposed national and cultural renewal based upon the Völkisch movement.[12] The party, especially its paramilitary organisation Sturmabteilung (SA; Storm Detachment), or Brownshirts, used physical violence to advance their political position, disrupting the meetings of rival organisations and attacking their members as well as Jewish people on the streets.[13] Such far-right armed groups were common in Bavaria, and were tolerated by the sympathetic far-right state government of Gustav Ritter von Kahr.[14] When the stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929, the effect in Germany was dire.[15] Millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the Nazis prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to strengthen the economy and provide jobs.[16] Many voters decided the Nazi Party was capable of restoring order, quelling civil unrest, and improving Germany's international reputation. After the federal election of 1932, the party was the largest in the Reichstag, holding 230 seats with 37.4 percent of the popular vote.[17] Although the Nazis won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932, they did not have a majority. Hitler therefore led a short-lived coalition government formed with the German National People's Party.[18] Under pressure from politicians, industrialists, and the business community, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933. This event is known as the Machtergreifung ("seizure of power").[19] On the night of 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set afire. Marinus van der Lubbe, a Dutch communist, was found guilty of starting the blaze. Hitler proclaimed that the arson marked the start of a communist uprising. The Reichstag Fire Decree, imposed on 28 February 1933, rescinded most civil liberties, including rights of assembly and freedom of the press. The decree also allowed the police to detain people indefinitely without charges. The legislation was accompanied by a propaganda campaign that led to public support for the measure. Violent suppression of communists by the SA was undertaken nationwide and 4,000 members of the Communist Party of Germany were arrested.[20] In March 1933, the Enabling Act, an amendment to the Weimar Constitution, passed in the Reichstag by a vote of 444 to 94.[21] This amendment allowed Hitler and his cabinet to pass laws—even laws that violated the constitution—without the consent of the president or the Reichstag.[22] As the bill required a two-thirds majority to pass, the Nazis used intimidation tactics as well as the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to keep several Social Democratic deputies from attending, and the Communists had already been banned.[23][24] On 10 May, the government seized the assets of the Social Democrats, and they were banned on 22 June.[25] On 21 June, the SA raided the offices of the German National People's Party – their former coalition partners – which then disbanded on 29 June. The remaining major political parties followed suit. On 14 July 1933 Germany became a one-party state with the passage of a law decreeing the Nazi Party to be the sole legal party in Germany. The founding of new parties was also made illegal, and all remaining political parties which had not already been dissolved were banned.[26] The Enabling Act would subsequently serve as the legal foundation for the dictatorship the Nazis established.[27] Further elections in November 1933, 1936, and 1938 were Nazi-controlled, with only members of the Party and a small number of independents elected.[28] The Hitler cabinet used the terms of the Reichstag Fire Decree and later the Enabling Act to initiate the process of Gleichschaltung ("co-ordination"), which brought all aspects of life under party control.[29] Individual states not controlled by elected Nazi governments or Nazi-led coalitions were forced to agree to the appointment of Reich Commissars to bring the states in line with the policies of the central government. These Commissars had the power to appoint and remove local governments, state parliaments, officials, and judges. In this way Germany became a de facto unitary state, with all state governments controlled by the central government under the Nazis.[30][31] The state parliaments and the Reichsrat (federal upper house) were abolished in January 1934,[32] with all state powers being transferred to the central government.[31] All civilian organisations, including agricultural groups, volunteer organisations, and sports clubs, had their leadership replaced with Nazi sympathisers or party members; these civic organisations either merged with the Nazi Party or faced dissolution.[33] The Nazi government declared a "Day of National Labor" for May Day 1933, and invited many trade union delegates to Berlin for celebrations. The day after, SA stormtroopers demolished union offices around the country; all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested.[34] The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, passed in April, removed from their jobs all teachers, professors, judges, magistrates, and government officials who were Jewish or whose commitment to the party was suspect.[35] This meant the only non-political institutions not under control of the Nazis were the churches.[36] The Nazi regime abolished the symbols of the Weimar Republic—including the black, red, and gold tricolour flag—and adopted reworked symbolism. The previous imperial black, white, and red tricolour was restored as one of Germany's two official flags; the second was the swastika flag of the Nazi Party, which became the sole national flag in 1935. The Party anthem "Horst-Wessel-Lied" ("Horst Wessel Song") became a second national anthem.[37] Germany was still in a dire economic situation, as six million people were unemployed and the balance of trade deficit was daunting.[38] Using deficit spending, public works projects were undertaken beginning in 1934, creating 1.7 million new jobs by the end of that year alone.[38] Average wages began to rise.[39] The SA leadership continued to apply pressure for greater political and military power. In response, Hitler used the Schutzstaffel (SS) and Gestapo to purge the entire SA leadership.[40] Hitler targeted SA Stabschef (Chief of Staff) Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who—along with a number of Hitler's political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher)—were arrested and shot.[41] Up to 200 people were killed from 30 June to 2 July 1934 in an event that became known as the Night of the Long Knives.[42] On 2 August 1934, Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted the "Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich", which stated that upon Hindenburg's death the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor.[43] Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler ("Leader and Chancellor"), although eventually Reichskanzler was dropped.[44] Germany was now a totalitarian state with Hitler at its head.[45] As head of state, Hitler became Supreme Commander of the armed forces. The new law provided an altered loyalty oath for servicemen so that they affirmed loyalty to Hitler personally rather than the office of supreme commander or the state.[46] On 19 August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 percent of the electorate in a plebiscite.[47] Most Germans were relieved that the conflicts and street fighting of the Weimar era had ended. They were deluged with propaganda orchestrated by Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda Joseph Goebbels, who promised peace and plenty for all in a united, Marxist-free country without the constraints of the Versailles Treaty.[48] The Nazi Party obtained and legitimised power through its initial revolutionary activities, then through manipulation of legal mechanisms, the use of police powers, and by taking control of the state and federal institutions.[49][50] The first major Nazi concentration camp, initially for political prisoners, was opened at Dachau in 1933.[51] Hundreds of camps of varying size and function were created by the end of the war.[52] Beginning in April 1933, scores of measures defining the status of Jews and their rights were instituted.[53] These measures culminated in the establishment of the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, which stripped them of their basic rights.[54] The Nazis would take from the Jews their wealth, their right to intermarry with non-Jews, and their right to occupy many fields of labour (such as law, medicine, or education). Eventually the Nazis declared the Jews as undesirable to remain among German citizens and society.[55] In the early years of the regime, Germany was without allies, and its military was drastically weakened by the Versailles Treaty. France, Poland, Italy, and the Soviet Union each had reasons to object to Hitler's rise to power. Poland suggested to France that the two nations engage in a preventive war against Germany in March 1933. Fascist Italy objected to German claims in the Balkans and on Austria, which Benito Mussolini considered to be in Italy's sphere of influence.[56] As early as February 1933, Hitler announced that rearmament must begin, albeit clandestinely at first, as to do so was in violation of the Versailles Treaty. On 17 May 1933, Hitler gave a speech before the Reichstag outlining his desire for world peace and accepted an offer from American President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military disarmament, provided the other nations of Europe did the same.[57] When the other European powers failed to accept this offer, Hitler pulled Germany out of the World Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations in October, claiming its disarmament clauses were unfair if they applied only to Germany.[58] In a referendum held in November, 95 percent of voters supported Germany's withdrawal.[59] In 1934, Hitler told his military leaders that a war in the east should begin in 1942.[60] The Saarland, which had been placed under League of Nations supervision for 15 years at the end of World War I, voted in January 1935 to become part of Germany.[61] In March 1935, Hitler announced the creation of an air force, and that the Reichswehr would be increased to 550,000 men.[62] Britain agreed to Germany building a naval fleet with the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement on 18 June 1935.[63] When the Italian invasion of Ethiopia led to only mild protests by the British and French governments, on 7 March 1936 Hitler used the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance as a pretext to order the army to march 3,000 troops into the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in violation of the Versailles Treaty.[64] As the territory was part of Germany, the British and French governments did not feel that attempting to enforce the treaty was worth the risk of war.[65] In the one-party election held on 29 March, the Nazis received 98.9 percent support.[65] In 1936, Hitler signed an Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan and a non-aggression agreement with Mussolini, who was soon referring to a "Rome-Berlin Axis".[66] Hitler sent military supplies and assistance to the Nationalist forces of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War, which began in July 1936. The German Condor Legion included a range of aircraft and their crews, as well as a tank contingent. The aircraft of the Legion destroyed the city of Guernica in 1937.[67] The Nationalists were victorious in 1939 and became an informal ally of Nazi Germany.[68] In February 1938, Hitler emphasised to Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg the need for Germany to secure its frontiers. Schuschnigg scheduled a plebiscite regarding Austrian independence for 13 March, but Hitler sent an ultimatum to Schuschnigg on 11 March demanding that he hand over all power to the Austrian Nazi Party or face an invasion. German troops entered Austria the next day, to be greeted with enthusiasm by the populace.[69] The Republic of Czechoslovakia was home to a substantial minority of Germans, who lived mostly in the Sudetenland. Under pressure from separatist groups within the Sudeten German Party, the Czechoslovak government offered economic concessions to the region.[70] Hitler decided not just to incorporate the Sudetenland into the Reich, but to destroy the country of Czechoslovakia entirely.[71] The Nazis undertook a propaganda campaign to try to generate support for an invasion.[72] Top German military leaders opposed the plan, as Germany was not yet ready for war.[73] The crisis led to war preparations by Britain, Czechoslovakia, and France (Czechoslovakia's ally). Attempting to avoid war, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain arranged a series of meetings, the result of which was the Munich Agreement, signed on 29 September 1938. The Czechoslovak government was forced to accept the Sudetenland's annexation into Germany. Chamberlain was greeted with cheers when he landed in London, saying the agreement brought "peace for our time".[74] In addition to the German annexation, Poland seized a narrow strip of land near Cieszyn on 2 October, while as a consequence of the Munich Agreement, Hungary demanded and received 12,000 square kilometres (4,600 sq mi) along their northern border in the First Vienna Award on 2 November.[75] Following negotiations with President Emil Hácha, Hitler seized the rest of the Czech half of the country on 15 March 1939 and created the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, one day after the proclamation of the Slovak Republic in the Slovak half.[76] Also on 15 March, Hungary occupied and annexed the recently proclaimed and unrecognized Carpatho-Ukraine and an additional sliver of land disputed with Slovakia.[77][78] Austrian and Czech foreign exchange reserves were seized by the Nazis, as were stockpiles of raw materials such as metals and completed goods such as weaponry and aircraft, which were shipped to Germany. The Reichswerke Hermann Göring industrial conglomerate took control of steel and coal production facilities in both countries.[79] In January 1934, Germany signed a non-aggression pact with Poland.[80] In March 1939, Hitler demanded the return of the Free City of Danzig and the Polish Corridor, a strip of land that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. The British announced they would come to the aid of Poland if it was attacked. Hitler, believing the British would not actually take action, ordered an invasion plan should be readied for September 1939.[81] On 23 May, Hitler described to his generals his overall plan of not only seizing the Polish Corridor but greatly expanding German territory eastward at the expense of Poland. He expected this time they would be met by force.[82] The Germans reaffirmed their alliance with Italy and signed non-aggression pacts with Denmark, Estonia, and Latvia whilst trade links were formalised with Romania, Norway, and Sweden.[83] Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop arranged in negotiations with the Soviet Union a non-aggression pact, the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, signed in August 1939.[84] The treaty also contained secret protocols dividing Poland and the Baltic states into German and Soviet spheres of influence.[85] Germany's wartime foreign policy involved the creation of allied governments controlled directly or indirectly from Berlin. They intended to obtain soldiers from allies such as Italy and Hungary and workers and food supplies from allies such as Vichy France.[86] Hungary was the fourth nation to join the Axis, signing the Tripartite Pact on 27 September 1940. Bulgaria signed the pact on 17 November. German efforts to secure oil included negotiating a supply from their new ally, Romania, who signed the Pact on 23 November, alongside the Slovak Republic.[87][88][89] By late 1942, there were 24 divisions from Romania on the Eastern Front, 10 from Italy, and 10 from Hungary.[90] Germany assumed full control in France in 1942, Italy in 1943, and Hungary in 1944. Although Japan was a powerful ally, the relationship was distant, with little co-ordination or co-operation. For example, Germany refused to share their formula for synthetic oil from coal until late in the war.[91] Germany invaded Poland and captured the Free City of Danzig on 1 September 1939, beginning World War II in Europe.[92] Honouring their treaty obligations, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later.[93] Poland fell quickly, as the Soviet Union attacked from the east on 17 September.[94] Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo; Security Police) and Sicherheitsdienst (SD; Security Service), ordered on 21 September that Polish Jews should be rounded up and concentrated into cities with good rail links. Initially the intention was to deport them further east, or possibly to Madagascar.[95] Using lists prepared in advance, some 65,000 Polish intelligentsia, noblemen, clergy, and teachers were killed by the end of 1939 in an attempt to destroy Poland's identity as a nation.[96][97] Soviet forces advanced into Finland in the Winter War, and German forces saw action at sea. But little other activity occurred until May, so the period became known as the "Phoney War".[98] From the start of the war, a British blockade on shipments to Germany affected its economy. Germany was particularly dependent on foreign supplies of oil, coal, and grain.[99] Thanks to trade embargoes and the blockade, imports into Germany declined by 80 per cent.[100] To safeguard Swedish iron ore shipments to Germany, Hitler ordered the invasion of Denmark and Norway, which began on 9 April. Denmark fell after less than a day, while most of Norway followed by the end of the month.[101][102] By early June, Germany occupied all of Norway.[103] Against the advice of many of his senior military officers, Hitler ordered an attack on France and the Low Countries, which began in May 1940.[104][105] They quickly conquered Luxembourg and the Netherlands. After outmanoeuvring the Allies in Belgium and forcing the evacuation of many British and French troops at Dunkirk,[106] France fell as well, surrendering to Germany on 22 June.[107] The victory in France resulted in an upswing in Hitler's popularity and an upsurge in war fever in Germany.[108] In violation of the provisions of the Hague Convention, industrial firms in the Netherlands, France, and Belgium were put to work producing war materiel for Germany.[109] The Nazis seized from the French thousands of locomotives and rolling stock, stockpiles of weapons, and raw materials such as copper, tin, oil, and nickel.[110] Payments for occupation costs were levied upon France, Belgium, and Norway.[111] Barriers to trade led to hoarding, black markets, and uncertainty about the future.[112] Food supplies were precarious; production dropped in most of Europe.[113] Famine was experienced in many occupied countries.[113] Hitler's peace overtures to the new British Prime Minister Winston Churchill were rejected in July 1940. Grand Admiral Erich Raeder had advised Hitler in June that air superiority was a pre-condition for a successful invasion of Britain, so Hitler ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force (RAF) airbases and radar stations, as well as nightly air raids on British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry. The German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the RAF in what became known as the Battle of Britain, and by the end of October, Hitler realised that air superiority would not be achieved. He permanently postponed the invasion, a plan which the commanders of the German army had never taken entirely seriously.[114][115][i] Several historians, including Andrew Gordon, believe the primary reason for the failure of the invasion plan was the superiority of the Royal Navy, not the actions of the RAF.[116] In February 1941, the German Afrika Korps arrived in Libya to aid the Italians in the North African Campaign.[117] On 6 April, Germany launched an invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece.[118][119] All of Yugoslavia and parts of Greece were subsequently divided between Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Bulgaria.[120][121] On 22 June 1941, contravening the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, about 3.8 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union.[122] In addition to Hitler's stated purpose of acquiring Lebensraum, this large-scale offensive—codenamed Operation Barbarossa—was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers.[123] The reaction among Germans was one of surprise and trepidation as many were concerned about how much longer the war would continue or suspected that Germany could not win a war fought on two fronts.[124] The invasion conquered a huge area, including the Baltic states, Belarus, and west Ukraine. After the successful Battle of Smolensk in September 1941, Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to halt its advance to Moscow and temporarily divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev.[125] This pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves. The Moscow offensive, which resumed in October 1941, ended disastrously in December.[126] On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Germany declared war on the United States.[127] Food was in short supply in the conquered areas of the Soviet Union and Poland, as the retreating armies had burned the crops in some areas, and much of the remainder was sent back to the Reich.[128] In Germany, rations were cut in 1942. In his role as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan, Hermann Göring demanded increased shipments of grain from France and fish from Norway. The 1942 harvest was good, and food supplies remained adequate in Western Europe.[129] Germany and Europe as a whole was almost totally dependent on foreign oil imports.[130] In an attempt to resolve the shortage, in June 1942 Germany launched Fall Blau ("Case Blue"), an offensive against the Caucasian oilfields.[131] The Red Army launched a counter-offensive on 19 November and encircled the Axis forces, who were trapped in Stalingrad on 23 November.[132] Göring assured Hitler that the 6th Army could be supplied by air, but this turned out to be infeasible.[133] Hitler's refusal to allow a retreat led to the deaths of 200,000 German and Romanian soldiers; of the 91,000 men who surrendered in the city on 31 January 1943, only 6,000 survivors returned to Germany after the war.[134] Losses continued to mount after Stalingrad, leading to a sharp reduction in the popularity of the Nazi Party and deteriorating morale. [135] Soviet forces continued to push westward after the failed German offensive at the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943. By the end of 1943, the Germans had lost most of their eastern territorial gains.[136] In Egypt, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps were defeated by British forces under Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery in October 1942.[137] The Allies landed in Sicily in July 1943 and in Italy in September.[138] Meanwhile, American and British bomber fleets based in Britain began operations against Germany. Many sorties were intentionally given civilian targets in an effort to destroy German morale.[139] German aircraft production could not keep pace with losses, and without air cover the Allied bombing campaign became even more devastating. By targeting oil refineries and factories, they crippled the German war effort by late 1944.[140] On 6 June 1944, American, British, and Canadian forces established a front in France with the D-Day landings in Normandy.[141] On 20 July 1944, Hitler survived an assassination attempt.[142] He ordered brutal reprisals, resulting in 7,000 arrests and the execution of more than 4,900 people.[143] The failed Ardennes Offensive (16 December 1944 – 25 January 1945) was the last major German offensive on the western front, and Soviet forces entered Germany on 27 January.[144] Hitler's refusal to admit defeat and his insistence that the war be fought to the last man led to unnecessary death and destruction in the war's closing months.[145] Through his Justice Minister Otto Georg Thierack, Hitler ordered that anyone who was not prepared to fight should be court-martialed, and thousands of people were put to death.[146] In many areas, people surrendered to the approaching Allies in spite of exhortations of local leaders to continue to fight. Hitler ordered the destruction of transport, bridges, industries, and other infrastructure—a scorched earth decree—but Armaments Minister Albert Speer prevented this order from being fully carried out.[145] During the Battle of Berlin (16 April 1945 – 2 May 1945), Hitler and his staff lived in the underground Führerbunker while the Red Army approached.[147] On 30 April, when Soviet troops were within two blocks of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler, along with his girlfriend and by then wife Eva Braun committed suicide.[148] On 2 May, General Helmuth Weidling unconditionally surrendered Berlin to Soviet General Vasily Chuikov.[149] Hitler was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as Reich President and Goebbels as Reich Chancellor.[150] Goebbels and his wife Magda committed suicide the next day after murdering their six children.[151] Between 4 and 8 May 1945, most of the remaining German armed forces unconditionally surrendered. The German Instrument of Surrender was signed 8 May, marking the end of the Nazi regime and the end of World War II in Europe.[152] Popular support for Hitler almost completely disappeared as the war drew to a close.[153] Suicide rates in Germany increased, particularly in areas where the Red Army was advancing. Among soldiers and party personnel, suicide was often deemed an honourable and heroic alternative to surrender. First-hand accounts and propaganda about the uncivilised behaviour of the advancing Soviet troops caused panic among civilians on the Eastern Front, especially women, who feared being raped.[154] More than a thousand people (out of a population of around 16,000) committed suicide in Demmin on and around 1 May 1945 as the 65th Army of 2nd Belorussian Front first broke into a distillery and then rampaged through the town, committing mass rapes, arbitrarily executing civilians, and setting fire to buildings. High numbers of suicides took place in many other locations, including Neubrandenburg (600 dead), Stolp in Pommern (1,000 dead),[155] and Berlin, where at least 7,057 people committed suicide in 1945.[156] Estimates of the total German war dead range from 5.5 to 6.9 million persons.[157] A study by German historian Rüdiger Overmans puts the number of German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders.[158] Richard Overy estimated in 2014 that about 353,000 civilians were killed in Allied air raids.[159] Other civilian deaths include 300,000 Germans (including Jews) who were victims of Nazi political, racial, and religious persecution[160] and 200,000 who were murdered in the Nazi euthanasia program.[161] Political courts called Sondergerichte sentenced some 12,000 members of the German resistance to death, and civil courts sentenced an additional 40,000 Germans.[162] Mass rapes of German women also took place.[163] As a result of their defeat in World War I and the resulting Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost Alsace-Lorraine, Northern Schleswig, and Memel. The Saarland became a protectorate of France under the condition that its residents would later decide by referendum which country to join, and Poland became a separate nation and was given access to the sea by the creation of the Polish Corridor, which separated Prussia from the rest of Germany, while Danzig was made a free city.[164] Germany regained control of the Saarland through a referendum held in 1935 and annexed Austria in the Anschluss of 1938.[165] The Munich Agreement of 1938 gave Germany control of the Sudetenland, and they seized the remainder of Czechoslovakia six months later.[74] Under threat of invasion by sea, Lithuania surrendered the Memel district in March 1939.[166] Between 1939 and 1941, German forces invaded Poland, Denmark, Norway, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium, Yugoslavia, Greece, and the Soviet Union.[107] Germany annexed parts of northern Yugoslavia in April 1941,[120][121] while Mussolini ceded Trieste, South Tyrol, and Istria to Germany in 1943.[167] Some of the conquered territories were incorporated into Germany as part of Hitler's long-term goal of creating a Greater Germanic Reich. Several areas, such as Alsace-Lorraine, were placed under the authority of an adjacent Gau (regional district). The Reichskommissariate (Reich Commissariats), quasi-colonial regimes, were established in some occupied countries. Areas placed under German administration included the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, Reichskommissariat Ostland (encompassing the Baltic states and Belarus), and Reichskommissariat Ukraine. Conquered areas of Belgium and France were placed under control of the Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France.[168] Belgian Eupen-Malmedy, which had been part of Germany until 1919, was annexed. Part of Poland was incorporated into the Reich, and the General Government was established in occupied central Poland.[169] The governments of Denmark, Norway (Reichskommissariat Norwegen), and the Netherlands (Reichskommissariat Niederlande) were placed under civilian administrations staffed largely by natives.[168][j] Hitler intended to eventually incorporate many of these areas into the Reich.[170] Germany occupied the Italian protectorate of Albania and the Italian governorate of Montenegro in 1943[171] and installed a puppet government in occupied Serbia in 1941.[172] The Nazis were a far-right fascist political party which arose during the social and financial upheavals that occurred following the end of World War I.[173] The Party remained small and marginalised, receiving 2.6% of the federal vote in 1928, prior to the onset of the Great Depression in 1929.[174] By 1930 the Party won 18.3% of the federal vote, making it the Reichstag's second largest political party.[175] While in prison after the failed Beer Hall Putsch of 1923, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, which laid out his plan for transforming German society into one based on race.[176] Nazi ideology brought together elements of antisemitism, racial hygiene, and eugenics, and combined them with pan-Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more Lebensraum for the Germanic people.[177] The regime attempted to obtain this new territory by attacking Poland and the Soviet Union, intending to deport or kill the Jews and Slavs living there, who were viewed as being inferior to the Aryan master race and part of a Jewish-Bolshevik conspiracy.[178][179] The Nazi regime believed that only Germany could defeat the forces of Bolshevism and save humanity from world domination by International Jewry.[180] Other people deemed life unworthy of life by the Nazis included the mentally and physically disabled, Romani people, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, and social misfits.[181][182] Influenced by the Völkisch movement, the regime was against cultural modernism and supported the development of an extensive military at the expense of intellectualism.[12][183] Creativity and art were stifled, except where they could serve as propaganda media.[184] The party used symbols such as the Blood Flag and rituals such as the Nazi Party rallies to foster unity and bolster the regime's popularity.[185] Hitler ruled Germany autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip ("leader principle"), which called for absolute obedience of all subordinates. He viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex. Party rank was not determined by elections, and positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank.[186] The party used propaganda to develop a cult of personality around Hitler.[187] Historians such as Kershaw emphasise the psychological impact of Hitler's skill as an orator.[188] Roger Gill states: "His moving speeches captured the minds and hearts of a vast number of the German people: he virtually hypnotized his audiences".[189] While top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, they had considerable autonomy.[190] He expected officials to "work towards the Führer" – to take the initiative in promoting policies and actions in line with party goals and Hitler's wishes, without his involvement in day-to-day decision-making.[191] The government was a disorganised collection of factions led by the party elite, who struggled to amass power and gain the Führer's favour.[192] Hitler's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them in positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped.[193] In this way he fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power.[194] Successive Reichsstatthalter decrees between 1933 and 1935 abolished the existing Länder (constituent states) of Germany and replaced them with new administrative divisions, the Gaue, governed by Nazi leaders (Gauleiters).[195] The change was never fully implemented, as the Länder were still used as administrative divisions for some government departments such as education. This led to a bureaucratic tangle of overlapping jurisdictions and responsibilities typical of the administrative style of the Nazi regime.[196] Jewish civil servants lost their jobs in 1933, except for those who had seen military service in World War I. Members of the Party or party supporters were appointed in their place.[197] As part of the process of Gleichschaltung, the Reich Local Government Law of 1935 abolished local elections, and mayors were appointed by the Ministry of the Interior.[198] In August 1934, civil servants and members of the military were required to swear an oath of unconditional obedience to Hitler. These laws became the basis of the Führerprinzip, the concept that Hitler's word overrode all existing laws.[199] Any acts that were sanctioned by Hitler—even murder—thus became legal.[200] All legislation proposed by cabinet ministers had to be approved by the office of Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess, who could also veto top civil service appointments.[201] Most of the judicial system and legal codes of the Weimar Republic remained in place to deal with non-political crimes.[202] The courts issued and carried out far more death sentences than before the Nazis took power.[202] People who were convicted of three or more offences—even petty ones—could be deemed habitual offenders and jailed indefinitely.[203] People such as prostitutes and pickpockets were judged to be inherently criminal and a threat to the community. Thousands were arrested and confined indefinitely without trial.[204] A new type of court, the Volksgerichtshof ("People's Court"), was established in 1934 to deal with political cases.[205] This court handed out over 5,000 death sentences until its dissolution in 1945.[206] The death penalty could be issued for offences such as being a communist, printing seditious leaflets, or even making jokes about Hitler or other officials.[207] The Gestapo was in charge of investigative policing to enforce National Socialist ideology as they located and confined political offenders, Jews, and others deemed undesirable.[208] Political offenders who were released from prison were often immediately re-arrested by the Gestapo and confined in a concentration camp.[209] The Nazis used propaganda to promulgate the concept of Rassenschande ("race defilement") to justify the need for racial laws.[210] In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws were enacted. These laws initially prohibited sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring".[211] The law also forbade the employment of German women under the age of 45 as domestic servants in Jewish households.[212] The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of "German or related blood" could be citizens.[213] Thus Jews and other non-Aryans were stripped of their German citizenship. The law also permitted the Nazis to deny citizenship to anyone who was not supportive enough of the regime.[213] A supplementary decree issued in November defined as Jewish anyone with three Jewish grandparents, or two grandparents if the Jewish faith was followed.[214] The unified armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 were called the Wehrmacht (defence force). This included the Heer (army), Kriegsmarine (navy), and the Luftwaffe (air force). From 2 August 1934, members of the armed forces were required to pledge an oath of unconditional obedience to Hitler personally. In contrast to the previous oath, which required allegiance to the constitution of the country and its lawful establishments, this new oath required members of the military to obey Hitler even if they were being ordered to do something illegal.[215] Hitler decreed that the army would have to tolerate and even offer logistical support to the Einsatzgruppen—the mobile death squads responsible for millions of deaths in Eastern Europe—when it was tactically possible to do so.[216] Wehrmacht troops also participated directly in the Holocaust by shooting civilians or committing genocide under the guise of anti-partisan operations.[217] The party line was that the Jews were the instigators of the partisan struggle and therefore needed to be eliminated.[218] On 8 July 1941, Heydrich announced that all Jews in the eastern conquered territories were to be regarded as partisans and gave the order for all male Jews between the ages of 15 and 45 to be shot.[219] By August, this was extended to include the entire Jewish population.[220] In spite of efforts to prepare the country militarily, the economy could not sustain a lengthy war of attrition. A strategy was developed based on the tactic of Blitzkrieg ("lightning war"), which involved using quick coordinated assaults that avoided enemy strong points. Attacks began with artillery bombardment, followed by bombing and strafing runs. Next the tanks would attack and finally the infantry would move in to secure the captured area.[221] Victories continued through mid-1940, but the failure to defeat Britain was the first major turning point in the war. The decision to attack the Soviet Union and the decisive defeat at Stalingrad led to the retreat of the German armies and the eventual loss of the war.[222] The total number of soldiers who served in the Wehrmacht from 1935 to 1945 was around 18.2 million, of whom 5.3 million died.[158] The Sturmabteilung (SA; Storm Detachment), or Brownshirts, founded in 1921, was the first paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party; their initial assignment was to protect Nazi leaders at rallies and assemblies.[223] They also took part in street battles against the forces of rival political parties and violent actions against Jews and others.[224] Under Ernst Röhm's leadership the SA grew by 1934 to over half a million members—4.5 million including reserves—at a time when the regular army was still limited to 100,000 men by the Versailles Treaty.[225] Röhm hoped to assume command of the army and absorb it into the ranks of the SA.[226] Hindenburg and Defence Minister Werner von Blomberg threatened to impose martial law if the activities of the SA were not curtailed.[227] Therefore, less than a year and a half after seizing power, Hitler ordered the deaths of the SA leadership, including Rohm. After the purge of 1934, the SA was no longer a major force.[42] Initially a small bodyguard unit under the auspices of the SA, the Schutzstaffel (SS; Protection Squadron) grew to become one of the largest and most powerful groups in Nazi Germany.[228] Led by Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler from 1929, the SS had over a quarter million members by 1938.[229] Himmler initially envisioned the SS as being an elite group of guards, Hitler's last line of defence.[230] The Waffen-SS, the military branch of the SS, evolved into a second army. It was dependent on the regular army for heavy weaponry and equipment, and most units were under tactical control of the High Command of the Armed Forces (OKW).[231][232] By the end of 1942, the stringent selection and racial requirements that had initially been in place were no longer followed. With recruitment and conscription based only on expansion, by 1943 the Waffen-SS could not longer claim to be an elite fighting force.[233] SS formations committed many war crimes against civilians and allied servicemen.[234] From 1935 onward, the SS spearheaded the persecution of Jews, who were rounded up into ghettos and concentration camps.[235] With the outbreak of World War II, the SS Einsatzgruppen units followed the army into Poland and the Soviet Union, where from 1941 to 1945 they killed more than two million people, including 1.3 million Jews.[236] A third of the Einsatzgruppen members were recruited from Waffen-SS personnel.[237][238] The SS-Totenkopfverbände (death's head units) ran the concentration camps and extermination camps, where millions more were killed.[239][240] Up to 60,000 Waffen-SS men served in the camps.[241] In 1931, Himmler organised an SS intelligence service which became known as the Sicherheitsdienst (SD; Security Service) under his deputy, Heydrich.[242] This organisation was tasked with locating and arresting communists and other political opponents.[243][244] Himmler established the beginnings of a parallel economy under the auspices of the SS Economy and Administration Head Office. This holding company owned housing corporations, factories, and publishing houses.[245][246] The most pressing economic matter the Nazis initially faced was the 30 percent national unemployment rate.[247] Economist Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, President of the Reichsbank and Minister of Economics, created a scheme for deficit financing in May 1933. Capital projects were paid for with the issuance of promissory notes called Mefo bills. When the notes were presented for payment, the Reichsbank printed money. Hitler and his economic team expected that the upcoming territorial expansion would provide the means of repaying the soaring national debt.[248] Schacht's administration achieved a rapid decline in the unemployment rate, the largest of any country during the Great Depression.[247] Economic recovery was uneven, with reduced hours of work and erratic availability of necessities, leading to disenchantment with the regime as early as 1934.[249] In October 1933, the Junkers Aircraft Works was expropriated. In concert with other aircraft manufacturers and under the direction of Aviation Minister Göring, production was ramped up. From a workforce of 3,200 people producing 100 units per year in 1932, the industry grew to employ a quarter of a million workers manufacturing over 10,000 technically advanced aircraft annually less than ten years later.[250] An elaborate bureaucracy was created to regulate imports of raw materials and finished goods with the intention of eliminating foreign competition in the German marketplace and improving the nation's balance of payments. The Nazis encouraged the development of synthetic replacements for materials such as oil and textiles.[251] As the market was experiencing a glut and prices for petroleum were low, in 1933 the Nazi government made a profit-sharing agreement with IG Farben, guaranteeing them a 5 percent return on capital invested in their synthetic oil plant at Leuna. Any profits in excess of that amount would be turned over to the Reich. By 1936, Farben regretted making the deal, as excess profits were by then being generated.[252] In another attempt to secure an adequate wartime supply of petroleum, Germany intimidated Romania into signing a trade agreement in March 1939.[253] Major public works projects financed with deficit spending included the construction of a network of Autobahnen and providing funding for programmes initiated by the previous government for housing and agricultural improvements.[254] To stimulate the construction industry, credit was offered to private businesses and subsidies were made available for home purchases and repairs.[255] On the condition that the wife would leave the workforce, a loan of up to 1,000 Reichsmarks could be accessed by young couples of Aryan descent who intended to marry, and the amount that had to be repaid was reduced by 25 percent for each child born.[256] The caveat that the woman had to remain unemployed outside the home was dropped by 1937 due to a shortage of skilled labourers.[257] Envisioning widespread car ownership as part of the new Germany, Hitler arranged for designer Ferdinand Porsche to draw up plans for the KdF-wagen (Strength Through Joy car), intended to be an automobile that everyone could afford. A prototype was displayed at the International Motor Show in Berlin on 17 February 1939. With the outbreak of World War II, the factory was converted to produce military vehicles. None were sold until after the war, when the vehicle was renamed the Volkswagen (people's car).[258] Six million people were unemployed when the Nazis took power in 1933 and by 1937 there were fewer than a million.[259] This was in part due to the removal of women from the workforce.[260] Real wages dropped by 25 percent between 1933 and 1938.[247] After the dissolution of the trade unions in May 1933, their funds were seized and their leadership arrested,[261] including those who attempted to co-operate with the Nazis.[34] A new organisation, the German Labour Front, was created and placed under Nazi Party functionary Robert Ley.[261] The average work week was 43 hours in 1933; by 1939 this increased to 47 hours.[262] By early 1934, the focus shifted towards rearmament. By 1935, military expenditures accounted for 73 percent of the government's purchases of goods and services.[263] On 18 October 1936, Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan, intended to speed up rearmament.[264] In addition to calling for the rapid construction of steel mills, synthetic rubber plants, and other factories, Göring instituted wage and price controls and restricted the issuance of stock dividends.[247] Large expenditures were made on rearmament in spite of growing deficits.[265] Plans unveiled in late 1938 for massive increases to the navy and air force were impossible to fulfil, as Germany lacked the finances and material resources to build the planned units, as well as the necessary fuel required to keep them running.[266] With the introduction of compulsory military service in 1935, the Reichswehr, which had been limited to 100,000 by the terms of the Versailles Treaty, expanded to 750,000 on active service at the start of World War II, with a million more in the reserve.[267] By January 1939, unemployment was down to 301,800 and it dropped to only 77,500 by September.[268] The Nazi war economy was a mixed economy that combined a free market with central planning. Historian Richard Overy describes it as being somewhere in between the command economy of the Soviet Union and the capitalist system of the United States.[269] In 1942, after the death of Armaments Minister Fritz Todt, Hitler appointed Albert Speer as his replacement.[270] Wartime rationing of consumer goods led to an increase in personal savings, funds which were in turn lent to the government to support the war effort.[271] By 1944, the war was consuming 75 percent of Germany's gross domestic product, compared to 60 percent in the Soviet Union and 55 percent in Britain.[272] Speer improved production by centralising planning and control, reducing production of consumer goods, and using forced labour and slavery.[273][274] The wartime economy eventually relied heavily upon the large-scale employment of slave labour. Germany imported and enslaved some 12 million people from 20 European countries to work in factories and on farms. Approximately 75 percent were Eastern European.[275] Many were casualties of Allied bombing, as they received poor air raid protection. Poor living conditions led to high rates of sickness, injury, and death, as well as sabotage and criminal activity.[276] The wartime economy also relied upon large-scale robbery, initially through the state seizing the property of Jewish citizens and later by plundering the resources of occupied territories.[277] Foreign workers brought into Germany were put into four classifications: guest workers, military internees, civilian workers, and Eastern workers. Each group was subject to different regulations. The Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and foreign workers.[278][279] By 1944, over a half million women served as auxiliaries in the German armed forces.[280] The number of women in paid employment only increased by 271,000 (1.8 percent) from 1939 to 1944.[281] As the production of consumer goods had been cut back, women left those industries for employment in the war economy. They also took jobs formerly held by men, especially on farms and in family-owned shops.[282] Very heavy strategic bombing by the Allies targeted refineries producing synthetic oil and gasoline, as well as the German transportation system, especially rail yards and canals.[283] The armaments industry began to break down by September 1944. By November, fuel coal was no longer reaching its destinations and the production of new armaments was no longer possible.[284] Overy argues that the bombing strained the German war economy and forced it to divert up to one-fourth of its manpower and industry into anti-aircraft resources, which very likely shortened the war.[285] During the course of the war, the Nazis extracted considerable plunder from occupied Europe. Historian and war correspondent William L. Shirer writes: "The total amount of [Nazi] loot will never be known; it has proved beyond man's capacity to accurately compute."[286] Gold reserves and other foreign holdings were seized from the national banks of occupied nations, while large "occupation costs" were usually imposed. By the end of the war, occupation costs were calculated by the Nazis at 60 billion Reichsmarks, with France alone paying 31.5 billion. The Bank of France was forced to provide 4.5 billion Reichsmarks in "credits" to Germany, while a further 500,000 Reichsmarks were assessed against Vichy France by the Nazis in the form of "fees" and other miscellaneous charges. The Nazis exploited other conquered nations in a similar way. After the war, the United States Strategic Bombing Survey concluded Germany had obtained 104 billion Reichsmarks in the form of occupation costs and other wealth transfers from occupied Europe, including two-thirds of the gross domestic product of Belgium and the Netherlands.[286] Nazi plunder included private and public art collections, artefacts, precious metals, books, and personal possessions. Hitler and Göring in particular were interested in acquiring looted art treasures from occupied Europe,[287] the former planning to use the stolen art to fill the galleries of the planned Führermuseum (Leader's Museum),[288] and the latter for his personal collection. Göring, having stripped almost all of occupied Poland of its artworks within six months of Germany's invasion, ultimately grew a collection valued at over 50 million Reichsmarks.[287] In 1940, the Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce was established to loot artwork and cultural material from public and private collections, libraries, and museums throughout Europe. France saw the greatest extent of Nazi plunder. Some 26,000 railroad cars of art treasures, furniture, and other looted items were sent to Germany from France.[289] By January 1941, Rosenberg estimated the looted treasures from France to be valued at over one billion Reichsmarks.[290] In addition, soldiers looted or purchased goods such as produce and clothing—items, which were becoming harder to obtain in Germany—for shipment home.[291] Goods and raw materials were also taken. In France, an estimated 9,000,000 tonnes (8,900,000 long tons; 9,900,000 short tons) of cereals were seized during the course of the war, including 75 percent of its oats. In addition, 80 percent of the country's oil and 74 percent of its steel production were taken. The valuation of this loot is estimated to be 184.5 billion francs. In Poland, Nazi plunder of raw materials began even before the German invasion had concluded.[292] Following Operation Barbarossa, the Soviet Union was also plundered. In 1943 alone, 9,000,000 tons of cereals, 2,000,000 tonnes (2,000,000 long tons; 2,200,000 short tons) of fodder, 3,000,000 tonnes (3,000,000 long tons; 3,300,000 short tons) of potatoes, and 662,000 tonnes (652,000 long tons; 730,000 short tons) of meats were sent back to Germany. During the course of the German occupation, some 12 million pigs and 13 million sheep were taken. The value of this plunder is estimated at 4 billion Reichsmarks. This relatively low number in comparison to the occupied nations of Western Europe can be attributed to the devastating fighting on the Eastern Front.[293] Racism and antisemitism were basic tenets of the Nazi Party and the Nazi regime. Nazi Germany's racial policy was based on their belief in the existence of a superior master race. The Nazis postulated the existence of a racial conflict between the Aryan master race and inferior races, particularly Jews, who were viewed as a mixed race that had infiltrated society and were responsible for the exploitation and repression of the Aryan race.[294] Discrimination against Jews began immediately after the seizure of power. Following a month-long series of attacks by members of the SA on Jewish businesses and synagogues, on 1 April 1933 Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish businesses.[295] The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service passed on 7 April forced all non-Aryan civil servants to retire from the legal profession and civil service.[296] Similar legislation soon deprived other Jewish professionals of their right to practise, and on 11 April a decree was promulgated that stated anyone who had even one Jewish parent or grandparent was considered non-Aryan.[297] As part of the drive to remove Jewish influence from cultural life, members of the National Socialist Student League removed from libraries any books considered un-German, and a nationwide book burning was held on 10 May.[298] The regime used violence and economic pressure to encourage Jews to voluntarily leave the country.[299] Jewish businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden to advertise, and deprived of access to government contracts. Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks.[300] Many towns posted signs forbidding entry to Jews.[301] In November 1938 a young Jewish man requested an interview with the German ambassador in Paris and met with a legation secretary, whom he shot and killed to protest his family's treatment in Germany. This incident provided the pretext for a pogrom the Nazis incited against the Jews on 9 November 1938. Members of the SA damaged or destroyed synagogues and Jewish property throughout Germany. At least 91 German Jews were killed during this pogrom, later called Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass.[302][303] Further restrictions were imposed on Jews in the coming months – they were forbidden to own businesses or work in retail shops, drive cars, go to the cinema, visit the library, or own weapons, and Jewish pupils were removed from schools. The Jewish community was fined one billion marks to pay for the damage caused by Kristallnacht and told that any insurance settlements would be confiscated.[304] By 1939, around 250,000 of Germany's 437,000 Jews had emigrated to the United States, Argentina, Great Britain, Palestine, and other countries.[305][306] Many chose to stay in continental Europe. Emigrants to Palestine were allowed to transfer property there under the terms of the Haavara Agreement, but those moving to other countries had to leave virtually all their property behind, and it was seized by the government.[306] Like the Jews, the Romani people were subjected to persecution from the early days of the regime. The Romani were forbidden to marry people of German extraction. They were shipped to concentration camps starting in 1935 and many were killed.[181][182] Following the invasion of Poland, 2,500 Roma and Sinti people were deported from Germany to the General Government, where they were imprisoned in labour camps. The survivors were likely exterminated at Bełżec, Sobibor, or Treblinka. A further 5,000 Sinti and Austrian Lalleri people were deported to the Łódź Ghetto in late 1941, where half were estimated to have died. The Romani survivors of the ghetto were subsequently moved to the Chełmno extermination camp in early 1942.[307] The Nazis intended on deporting all Romani people from Germany, and confined them to Zigeunerlager (Gypsy camps) for this purpose. Himmler ordered their deportation from Germany in December 1942, with few exceptions. A total of 23,000 Romani were deported to Auschwitz concentration camp, of whom 19,000 died. Outside of Germany, the Romani people were regularly used for forced labour, though many were killed. In the Baltic states and the Soviet Union, 30,000 Romani were killed by the SS, the German Army, and Einsatzgruppen. In occupied Serbia, 1,000 to 12,000 Romani were killed, while nearly all 25,000 Romani living in the Independent State of Croatia were killed. The estimates at end of the war put the total death toll at around 220,000, which equalled approximately 25 percent of the Romani population in Europe.[307] Action T4 was a programme of systematic murder of the physically and mentally handicapped and patients in psychiatric hospitals that took place mainly from 1939 to 1941, and continued until the end of the war. Initially the victims were shot by the Einsatzgruppen and others; gas chambers and gas vans using carbon monoxide were used by early 1940.[308][309] Under the Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring, enacted on 14 July 1933, over 400,000 individuals underwent compulsory sterilisation.[310] Over half were those considered mentally deficient, which included not only people who scored poorly on intelligence tests, but those who deviated from expected standards of behaviour regarding thrift, sexual behaviour, and cleanliness. Most of the victims came from disadvantaged groups such as prostitutes, the poor, the homeless, and criminals.[311] Other groups persecuted and killed included Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals, social misfits, and members of the political and religious opposition.[182][312] Germany's war in the East was based on Hitler's long-standing view that Jews were the great enemy of the German people and that Lebensraum was needed for Germany's expansion. Hitler focused his attention on Eastern Europe, aiming to conquer Poland and the Soviet Union.[178][179] After the occupation of Poland in 1939, all Jews living in the General Government were confined to ghettos, and those who were physically fit were required to perform compulsory labour.[313] In 1941 Hitler decided to destroy the Polish nation completely; within 15 to 20 years the General Government was to be cleared of ethnic Poles and resettled by German colonists.[314] About 3.8 to 4 million Poles would remain as slaves,[315] part of a slave labour force of 14 million the Nazis intended to create using citizens of conquered nations.[179][316] The Generalplan Ost ("General Plan for the East") called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia, for use as slave labour or to be murdered.[317] To determine who should be killed, Himmler created the Volksliste, a system of classification of people deemed to be of German blood.[318] He ordered that those of Germanic descent who refused to be classified as ethnic Germans should be deported to concentration camps, have their children taken away, or be assigned to forced labour.[319][320] The plan also included the kidnapping of children deemed to have Aryan-Nordic traits, who were presumed to be of German descent.[321] The goal was to implement Generalplan Ost after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when the invasion failed Hitler had to consider other options.[317][322] One suggestion was a mass forced deportation of Jews to Poland, Palestine, or Madagascar.[313] In addition to eliminating Jews, the Nazis planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan. Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists.[323] Together, the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union.[324] These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the democidal deaths of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war (POWs) throughout the USSR and elsewhere in Europe.[325] During the course of the war, the Soviet Union lost a total of 27 million people; less than nine million of these were combat deaths.[326] One in four of the Soviet population were killed or wounded.[327] Around the time of the failed offensive against Moscow in December 1941, Hitler resolved that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately.[328] While the murder of Jewish civilians had been ongoing in the occupied territories of Poland and the Soviet Union, plans for the total eradication of the Jewish population of Europe—eleven million people—were formalised at the Wannsee Conference on 20 January 1942. Some would be worked to death and the rest would be killed in the implementation of the Final Solution to the Jewish Question.[329] Initially the victims were killed by Einsatzgruppen firing squads, then by stationary gas chambers or by gas vans, but these methods proved impractical for an operation of this scale.[330][331] By 1942 extermination camps equipped with gas chambers were established at Auschwitz, Chełmno, Sobibor, Treblinka, and elsewhere.[332] The total number of Jews murdered is estimated at 5.5 to six million,[240] including over a million children.[333] The Allies received information about the murders from the Polish government-in-exile and Polish leadership in Warsaw, based mostly on intelligence from the Polish underground.[334][335] German citizens had access to information about what was happening, as soldiers returning from the occupied territories reported on what they had seen and done.[336] Historian Richard J. Evans states that most German citizens disapproved of the genocide.[337][k] Poles were viewed by Nazis as subhuman non-Aryans, and during the German occupation of Poland 2.7 million ethnic Poles were killed.[338] Polish civilians were subject to forced labour in German industry, internment, wholesale expulsions to make way for German colonists, and mass executions. The German authorities engaged in a systematic effort to destroy Polish culture and national identity. During operation AB-Aktion, many university professors and members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested, transported to concentration camps, or executed. During the war, Poland lost an estimated 39 to 45 percent of its physicians and dentists, 26 to 57 percent of its lawyers, 15 to 30 percent of its teachers, 30 to 40 percent of its scientists and university professors, and 18 to 28 percent of its clergy.[339] The Nazis captured 5.75 million Soviet prisoners of war, more than they took from all the other Allied powers combined. Of these, they killed an estimated 3.3 million,[340] with 2.8 million of them being killed between June 1941 and January 1942.[341] Many POWs starved to death or resorted to cannibalism while being held in open-air pens at Auschwitz and elsewhere.[342] From 1942 onward, Soviet POWs were viewed as a source of forced labour, and received better treatment so they could work.[343] By December 1944, 750,000 Soviet POWs were working, including in German armaments factories (in violation of the Hague and Geneva conventions), mines, and farms.[344] Antisemitic legislation passed in 1933 led to the removal of all Jewish teachers, professors, and officials from the education system. Most teachers were required to belong to the Nationalsozialistischer Lehrerbund (NSLB; National Socialist Teachers League) and university professors were required to join the National Socialist German Lecturers.[345][346] Teachers had to take an oath of loyalty and obedience to Hitler, and those who failed to show sufficient conformity to party ideals were often reported by students or fellow teachers and dismissed.[347][348] Lack of funding for salaries led to many teachers leaving the profession. The average class size increased from 37 in 1927 to 43 in 1938 due to the resulting teacher shortage.[349] Frequent and often contradictory directives were issued by Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick, Bernhard Rust of the Reich Ministry of Science, Education and Culture, and other agencies regarding content of lessons and acceptable textbooks for use in primary and secondary schools.[350] Books deemed unacceptable to the regime were removed from school libraries.[351] Indoctrination in National Socialist thought was made compulsory in January 1934.[351] Students selected as future members of the party elite were indoctrinated from the age of 12 at Adolf Hitler Schools for primary education and National Political Institutes of Education for secondary education. Detailed National Socialist indoctrination of future holders of elite military rank was undertaken at Order Castles.[352] Primary and secondary education focused on racial biology, population policy, culture, geography, and physical fitness.[353] The curriculum in most subjects, including biology, geography, and even arithmetic, was altered to change the focus to race.[354] Military education became the central component of physical education, and education in physics was oriented toward subjects with military applications, such as ballistics and aerodynamics.[355][356] Students were required to watch all films prepared by the school division of the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda.[351] At universities, appointments to top posts were the subject of power struggles between the education ministry, the university boards, and the National Socialist German Students' League.[357] In spite of pressure from the League and various government ministries, most university professors did not make changes to their lectures or syllabus during the Nazi period.[358] This was especially true of universities located in predominantly Catholic regions.[359] Enrolment at German universities declined from 104,000 students in 1931 to 41,000 in 1939, but enrolment in medical schools rose sharply as Jewish doctors had been forced to leave the profession, so medical graduates had good job prospects.[360] From 1934, university students were required to attend frequent and time-consuming military training sessions run by the SA.[361] First-year students also had to serve six months in a labour camp for the Reich Labour Service; an additional ten weeks service were required of second-year students.[362] Women were a cornerstone of Nazi social policy. The Nazis opposed the feminist movement, claiming that it was the creation of Jewish intellectuals, instead advocating a patriarchal society in which the German woman would recognise that her "world is her husband, her family, her children, and her home".[260] Feminist groups were shut down or incorporated into the National Socialist Women's League, which coordinated groups throughout the country to promote motherhood and household activities. Courses were offered on childrearing, sewing, and cooking. Prominent feminists, including Anita Augspurg, Lida Gustava Heymann, and Helene Stöcker, felt forced to live in exile.[363] The League published the NS-Frauen-Warte, the only Nazi-approved women's magazine in Nazi Germany;[364] despite some propaganda aspects, it was predominantly an ordinary woman's magazine.[365] Women were encouraged to leave the workforce, and the creation of large families by racially suitable women was promoted through a propaganda campaign. Women received a bronze award—known as the Ehrenkreuz der Deutschen Mutter (Cross of Honour of the German Mother)—for giving birth to four children, silver for six, and gold for eight or more.[363] Large families received subsidies to help with expenses. Though the measures led to increases in the birth rate, the number of families having four or more children declined by five percent between 1935 and 1940.[366] Removing women from the workforce did not have the intended effect of freeing up jobs for men, as women were for the most part employed as domestic servants, weavers, or in the food and drink industries—jobs that were not of interest to men.[367] Nazi philosophy prevented large numbers of women from being hired to work in munitions factories in the build-up to the war, so foreign labourers were brought in. After the war started, slave labourers were extensively used.[368] In January 1943, Hitler signed a decree requiring all women under the age of fifty to report for work assignments to help the war effort.[369] Thereafter women were funnelled into agricultural and industrial jobs, and by September 1944 14.9 million women were working in munitions production.[370] Nazi leaders endorsed the idea that rational and theoretical work was alien to a woman's nature, and as such discouraged women from seeking higher education. [371] A law passed in April 1933 limited the number of females admitted to university to ten percent of the number of male attendees.[372] This resulted in female enrolment in secondary schools dropping from 437,000 in 1926 to 205,000 in 1937. The number of women enrolled in post-secondary schools dropped from 128,000 in 1933 to 51,000 in 1938. However, with the requirement that men be enlisted into the armed forces during the war, women comprised half of the enrolment in the post-secondary system by 1944.[373] Women were expected to be strong, healthy, and vital.[374] The sturdy peasant woman who worked the land and bore strong children was considered ideal, and women were praised for being athletic and tanned from working outdoors.[375] Organisations were created for the indoctrination of Nazi values. From 25 March 1939 membership in the Hitler Youth was made compulsory for all children over the age of ten.[376] The Jungmädelbund (Young Girls League) section of the Hitler Youth was for girls age 10 to 14 and the Bund Deutscher Mädel (BDM; League of German Girls) was for young women age 14 to 18. The BDM's activities focused on physical education, with activities such as running, long jumping, somersaulting, tightrope walking, marching, and swimming.[377] The Nazi regime promoted a liberal code of conduct regarding sexual matters and was sympathetic to women who bore children out of wedlock.[378] Promiscuity increased as the war progressed, with unmarried soldiers often intimately involved with several women simultaneously. Soldier's wives were frequently involved in extramarital relationships. Sex was sometimes used as a commodity to obtain better work from a foreign labourer.[379] Pamphlets enjoined German women to avoid sexual relations with foreign workers as a danger to their blood.[380] With Hitler's approval, Himmler intended that the new society of the Nazi regime should destigmatise illegitimate births, particularly of children fathered by members of the SS, who were vetted for racial purity.[381] His hope was that each SS family would have between four and six children.[381] The Lebensborn (Fountain of Life) association, founded by Himmler in 1935, created a series of maternity homes to accommodate single mothers during their pregnancies.[382] Both parents were examined for racial suitability before acceptance.[382] The resulting children were often adopted into SS families.[382] The homes were also made available to the wives of SS and Nazi Party members, who quickly filled over half the available spots.[383] Existing laws banning abortion except for medical reasons were strictly enforced by the Nazi regime. The number of abortions declined from 35,000 per year at the start of the 1930s to fewer than 2,000 per year at the end of the decade, though in 1935 a law was passed allowing abortions for eugenics reasons.[384] Nazi Germany had a strong anti-tobacco movement, as pioneering research by Franz H. Müller in 1939 demonstrated a causal link between smoking and lung cancer.[385] The Reich Health Office took measures to try to limit smoking, including producing lectures and pamphlets.[386] Smoking was banned in many workplaces, on trains, and among on-duty members of the military.[387] Government agencies also worked to control other carcinogenic substances such as asbestos and pesticides.[388] As part of a general public health campaign, water supplies were cleaned up, lead and mercury were removed from consumer products, and women were urged to undergo regular screenings for breast cancer.[389] Government-run health care insurance plans were available, but Jews were denied coverage starting in 1933. That same year, Jewish doctors were forbidden to treat government-insured patients. In 1937, Jewish doctors were forbidden to treat non-Jewish patients and in 1938 their right to practice medicine was removed entirely.[390] Medical experiments, many of them pseudoscientific, were performed on concentration camp inmates beginning in 1941.[391] The most notorious doctor to perform medical experiments was SS-Hauptsturmführer Dr. Josef Mengele, camp doctor at Auschwitz.[392] Many of his victims died or were intentionally killed.[393] Concentration camp inmates were made available for purchase by pharmaceutical companies for drug testing and other experiments.[394] Nazi society had elements supportive of animal rights and many people were fond of zoos and wildlife.[395] The government took several measures to ensure the protection of animals and the environment. In 1933, the Nazis enacted a stringent animal-protection law that affected what was allowed for medical research.[396] The law was only loosely enforced, and in spite of a ban on vivisection, the Ministry of the Interior readily handed out permits for experiments on animals.[397] The Reich Forestry Office under Göring enforced regulations that required foresters to plant a variety of trees to ensure suitable habitat for wildlife, and a new Reich Animal Protection Act became law in 1933.[398] The regime enacted the Reich Nature Protection Act in 1935 to protect the natural landscape from excessive economic development. It allowed for the expropriation of privately owned land to create nature preserves and aided in long-range planning.[399] Perfunctory efforts were made to curb air pollution, but little enforcement of existing legislation was undertaken once the war began.[400] When the Nazis seized power in 1933, roughly 67 percent of the population of Germany was Protestant, 33 percent was Roman Catholic, while Jews made up less than 1 percent.[401][402] According to 1939 census, 54 percent considered themselves Protestant, 40 percent Roman Catholic, 3.5 percent Gottgläubig (God-believing; a Nazi religious movement) and 1.5 percent nonreligious.[1] Under the Gleichschaltung process, Hitler attempted to create a unified Protestant Reich Church from Germany's 28 existing Protestant state churches,[403] with the ultimate goal of eradication of the churches in Germany.[404] Pro-Nazi Ludwig Müller was installed as Reich Bishop and the pro-Nazi pressure group German Christians gained control of the new church.[405] They objected to the Old Testament because of its Jewish origins and demanded that converted Jews be barred from their church.[406] Pastor Martin Niemöller responded with the formation of the Confessing Church, from which some clergymen opposed the Nazi regime.[407] When in 1935 the Confessing Church synod protested the Nazi policy on religion, 700 of their pastors were arrested.[408] Müller resigned and Hitler appointed Hanns Kerrl as Minister for Church Affairs to continue efforts to control Protestantism.[409] In 1936, a Confessing Church envoy protested to Hitler against the religious persecutions and human rights abuses.[408] Hundreds more pastors were arrested.[409] The church continued to resist and by early 1937 Hitler abandoned his hope of uniting the Protestant churches.[408] Niemöller was arrested on 1 July 1937 and spent most of the next seven years in Sachsenhausen concentration camp and Dachau.[410] Theological universities were closed and pastors and theologians of other Protestant denominations were also arrested.[408] Persecution of the Catholic Church in Germany followed the Nazi takeover.[412] Hitler moved quickly to eliminate political Catholicism, rounding up functionaries of the Catholic-aligned Bavarian People's Party and Catholic Centre Party, which along with all other non-Nazi political parties ceased to exist by July.[413] The Reichskonkordat (Reich Concordat) treaty with the Vatican was signed in 1933, amid continuing harassment of the church in Germany.[310] The treaty required the regime to honour the independence of Catholic institutions and prohibited clergy from involvement in politics.[414] Hitler routinely disregarded the Concordat, closing all Catholic institutions whose functions were not strictly religious.[415] Clergy, nuns and lay leaders were targeted, with thousands of arrests over the ensuing years, often on trumped-up charges of currency smuggling or immorality.[416] Several Catholic leaders were targeted in the 1934 Night of the Long Knives assassinations.[417][418][419] Most Catholic youth groups refused to dissolve themselves and Hitler Youth leader Baldur von Schirach encouraged members to attack Catholic boys in the streets.[420] Propaganda campaigns claimed the church was corrupt, restrictions were placed on public meetings and Catholic publications faced censorship. Catholic schools were required to reduce religious instruction and crucifixes were removed from state buildings.[421] Pope Pius XI had the "Mit brennender Sorge" ("With Burning Concern") encyclical smuggled into Germany for Passion Sunday 1937 and read from every pulpit as it denounced the systematic hostility of the regime toward the church.[416][422] In response, Goebbels renewed the regime's crackdown and propaganda against Catholics. Enrolment in denominational schools dropped sharply and by 1939 all such schools were disbanded or converted to public facilities.[423] Later Catholic protests included the 22 March 1942 pastoral letter by the German bishops on "The Struggle against Christianity and the Church".[424] About 30 percent of Catholic priests were disciplined by police during the Nazi era.[425][426] A vast security network spied on the activities of clergy and priests were frequently denounced, arrested or sent to concentration camps – many to the dedicated clergy barracks at Dachau.[427] In the areas of Poland annexed in 1939, the Nazis instigated a brutal suppression and systematic dismantling of the Catholic Church.[428][429] Alfred Rosenberg, head of the Nazi Party Office of Foreign Affairs and Hitler's appointed cultural and educational leader for Nazi Germany, considered Catholicism to be among the Nazis' chief enemies. He planned the "extermination of the foreign Christian faiths imported into Germany", and for the Bible and Christian cross to be replaced in all churches, cathedrals, and chapels with copies of Mein Kampf and the swastika. Other sects of Christianity were also targeted, with Chief of the Nazi Party Chancellery Martin Bormann publicly proclaiming in 1941, "National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable."[404] Shirer writes that opposition to Christianity within Party leadership was so pronounced that, "the Nazi regime intended to eventually destroy Christianity in Germany, if it could, and substitute the old paganism of the early tribal Germanic gods and the new paganism of the Nazi extremists."[404] While no unified resistance movement opposing the Nazi regime existed, acts of defiance such as sabotage and labour slowdowns took place, as well as attempts to overthrow the regime or assassinate Hitler.[430] The banned Communist and Social Democratic parties set up resistance networks in the mid-1930s. These networks achieved little beyond fomenting unrest and initiating short-lived strikes.[431] Carl Friedrich Goerdeler, who initially supported Hitler, changed his mind in 1936 and was later a participant in the July 20 plot.[432][433] The Red Orchestra spy ring provided information to the Allies about Nazi war crimes, helped orchestrate escapes from Germany, and distributed leaflets. The group was detected by the Gestapo and more than 50 members were tried and executed in 1942.[434] Communist and Social Democratic resistance groups resumed activity in late 1942, but were unable to achieve much beyond distributing leaflets. The two groups saw themselves as potential rival parties in post-war Germany, and for the most part did not co-ordinate their activities.[435] The White Rose resistance group was primarily active in 1942–43, and many of its members were arrested or executed, with the final arrests taking place in 1944.[436] Another civilian resistance group, the Kreisau Circle, had some connections with the military conspirators, and many of its members were arrested after the failed 20 July plot.[437] While civilian efforts had an impact on public opinion, the army was the only organisation with the capacity to overthrow the government.[438][439] A major plot by men in the upper echelons of the military originated in 1938. They believed Britain would go to war over Hitler's planned invasion of Czechoslovakia, and Germany would lose. The plan was to overthrow Hitler or possibly assassinate him. Participants included Generaloberst Ludwig Beck, Generaloberst Walther von Brauchitsch, Generaloberst Franz Halder, Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, and Generalleutnant Erwin von Witzleben, who joined a conspiracy headed by Oberstleutnant Hans Oster and Major Helmuth Groscurth of the Abwehr. The planned coup was cancelled after the signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938.[440] Many of the same people were involved in a coup planned for 1940, but again the participants changed their minds and backed down, partly because of the popularity of the regime after the early victories in the war.[441][442] Attempts to assassinate Hitler resumed in earnest in 1943, with Henning von Tresckow joining Oster's group and attempting to blow up Hitler's plane in 1943. Several more attempts followed before the failed 20 July 1944 plot, which was at least partly motivated by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war.[443][444] The plot, part of Operation Valkyrie, involved Claus von Stauffenberg planting a bomb in the conference room at Wolf's Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler, who narrowly survived, later ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people.[445] Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (2003) The regime promoted the concept of Volksgemeinschaft, a national German ethnic community. The goal was to build a classless society based on racial purity and the perceived need to prepare for warfare, conquest and a struggle against Marxism.[446][447] The German Labour Front founded the Kraft durch Freude (KdF; Strength Through Joy) organisation in 1933. As well as taking control of tens of thousands of privately run recreational clubs, it offered highly regimented holidays and entertainment such as cruises, vacation destinations and concerts.[448][449] The Reichskulturkammer (Reich Chamber of Culture) was organised under the control of the Propaganda Ministry in September 1933. Sub-chambers were set up to control aspects of cultural life such as film, radio, newspapers, fine arts, music, theatre and literature. Members of these professions were required to join their respective organisation. Jews and people considered politically unreliable were prevented from working in the arts, and many emigrated. Books and scripts had to be approved by the Propaganda Ministry prior to publication. Standards deteriorated as the regime sought to use cultural outlets exclusively as propaganda media.[450] Radio became popular in Germany during the 1930s; over 70 percent of households owned a receiver by 1939, more than any other country. By July 1933, radio station staffs were purged of leftists and others deemed undesirable.[451] Propaganda and speeches were typical radio fare immediately after the seizure of power, but as time went on Goebbels insisted that more music be played so that listeners would not turn to foreign broadcasters for entertainment.[452] Newspapers, like other media, were controlled by the state; the Reich Press Chamber shut down or bought newspapers and publishing houses. By 1939, over two-thirds of the newspapers and magazines were directly owned by the Propaganda Ministry.[454] The Nazi Party daily newspaper, the Völkischer Beobachter ("Ethnic Observer"), was edited by Rosenberg, who also wrote The Myth of the Twentieth Century, a book of racial theories espousing Nordic superiority.[455] Goebbels controlled the wire services and insisted that all newspapers in Germany only publish content favourable to the regime. Under Goebbels, the Propaganda Ministry issued two dozen directives every week on exactly what news should be published and what angles to use; the typical newspaper followed the directives closely, especially regarding what to omit.[456] Newspaper readership plummeted, partly because of the decreased quality of the content and partly because of the surge in popularity of radio.[457] Propaganda became less effective towards the end of the war, as people were able to obtain information outside of official channels.[458] Authors of books left the country in droves and some wrote material critical of the regime while in exile. Goebbels recommended that the remaining authors concentrate on books themed on Germanic myths and the concept of blood and soil. By the end of 1933, over a thousand books—most of them by Jewish authors or featuring Jewish characters—had been banned by the Nazi regime.[459] Nazi book burnings took place; nineteen such events were held on the night of 10 May 1933.[453] Tens of thousands of books from dozens of figures, including Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Helen Keller, Alfred Kerr, Marcel Proust, Erich Maria Remarque, Upton Sinclair, Jakob Wassermann, H. G. Wells, and Émile Zola were publicly burned. Pacifist works, and literature espousing liberal, democratic values were targeted for destruction, as well as any writings supporting the Weimar Republic or those written by Jewish authors.[460] Hitler took a personal interest in architecture and worked closely with state architects Paul Troost and Albert Speer to create public buildings in a neoclassical style based on Roman architecture.[461][462] Speer constructed imposing structures such as the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg and a new Reich Chancellery building in Berlin.[463] Hitler's plans for rebuilding Berlin included a gigantic dome based on the Pantheon in Rome and a triumphal arch more than double the height of the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. Neither structure was built.[464] Hitler's belief that abstract, Dadaist, expressionist and modern art were decadent became the basis for policy.[465] Many art museum directors lost their posts in 1933 and were replaced by party members.[466] Some 6,500 modern works of art were removed from museums and replaced with works chosen by a Nazi jury.[467] Exhibitions of the rejected pieces, under titles such as "Decadence in Art", were launched in sixteen different cities by 1935. The Degenerate Art Exhibition, organised by Goebbels, ran in Munich from July to November 1937. The exhibition proved wildly popular, attracting over two million visitors.[468] Composer Richard Strauss was appointed president of the Reichsmusikkammer (Reich Music Chamber) on its founding in November 1933.[469] As was the case with other art forms, the Nazis ostracised musicians who were deemed racially unacceptable and for the most part disapproved of music that was too modern or atonal.[470] Jazz was considered especially inappropriate and foreign jazz musicians left the country or were expelled.[471] Hitler favoured the music of Richard Wagner, especially pieces based on Germanic myths and heroic stories, and attended the Bayreuth Festival each year from 1933 to 1942.[472] Movies were popular in Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, with admissions of over a billion people in 1942, 1943 and 1944.[473][474] By 1934, German regulations restricting currency exports made it impossible for US film makers to take their profits back to America, so the major film studios closed their German branches. Exports of German films plummeted, as their antisemitic content made them impossible to show in other countries. The two largest film companies, Universum Film AG and Tobis, were purchased by the Propaganda Ministry, which by 1939 was producing most German films. The productions were not always overtly propagandistic, but generally had a political subtext and followed party lines regarding themes and content. Scripts were pre-censored.[475] Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will (1935)—documenting the 1934 Nuremberg Rally—and Olympia (1938)—covering the 1936 Summer Olympics—pioneered techniques of camera movement and editing that influenced later films. New techniques such as telephoto lenses and cameras mounted on tracks were employed. Both films remain controversial, as their aesthetic merit is inseparable from their propagandising of National Socialist ideals.[476][477] The Allied powers organised war crimes trials, beginning with the Nuremberg trials, held from November 1945 to October 1946, of 23 top Nazi officials. They were charged with four counts—conspiracy to commit crimes, crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity—in violation of international laws governing warfare.[478] All but three of the defendants were found guilty and twelve were sentenced to death.[479] Twelve Subsequent Nuremberg trials of 184 defendants were held between 1946 and 1949.[478] Between 1946 and 1949, the Allies investigated 3,887 cases, of which 489 were brought to trial. The result was convictions of 1,426 people; 297 of these were sentenced to death and 279 to life in prison, with the remainder receiving lesser sentences. About 65 percent of the death sentences were carried out.[480] Poland was more active than other nations in investigating war crimes, for example prosecuting 673 of the total 789 Auschwitz staff brought to trial.[481] The political programme espoused by Hitler and the Nazis brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as Stunde Null (Zero Hour).[482] The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in the history of warfare.[483] As a result, Nazi ideology and the actions taken by the regime are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral.[484] Historians, philosophers, and politicians often use the word "evil" to describe Hitler and the Nazi regime.[485] Interest in Nazi Germany continues in the media and the academic world. While Evans remarks that the era "exerts an almost universal appeal because its murderous racism stands as a warning to the whole of humanity",[486] young neo-Nazis enjoy the shock value that Nazi symbols or slogans provide.[487] The display or use of Nazi symbolism such as flags, swastikas, or greetings is illegal in Germany and Austria.[488] The process of denazification, which was initiated by the Allies as a way to remove Nazi Party members was only partially successful, as the need for experts in such fields as medicine and engineering was too great. However, expression of Nazi views was frowned upon, and those who expressed such views were frequently dismissed from their jobs.[489] From the immediate post-war period through the 1950s, people avoided talking about the Nazi regime or their own wartime experiences. While virtually every family suffered losses during the war has a story to tell, Germans kept quiet about their experiences and felt a sense of communal guilt, even if they were not directly involved in war crimes.[490] The trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961 and the broadcast of the television miniseries Holocaust in 1979 brought the process of Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coping with the past) to the forefront for many Germans.[487][490] Once study of Nazi Germany was introduced into the school curriculum starting in the 1970s, people began researching the experiences of their family members. Study of the era and a willingness to critically examine its mistakes has led to the development of a strong democracy in Germany, but with lingering undercurrents of antisemitism and neo-Nazi thought.[490] In 2017 a Körber Foundation survey found that 40 percent of 14-year-olds in Germany did not know what Auschwitz was.[491] The journalist Alan Posener attributed the country's "growing historical amnesia" in part to a failure by the German film and television industry to reflect the country's history accurately.[492]

Heathrow Airport

Heathrow Airport, originally called London Airport (until 1966) and now known as London Heathrow[3] (IATA: LHR, ICAO: EGLL), is a major international airport in London, United Kingdom. Heathrow is the second busiest airport in the world by international passenger traffic, as well as the busiest airport in Europe by passenger traffic, and the seventh busiest airport in the world by total passenger traffic. It is one of six international airports serving the London region. In 2019, it handled a record 80.8 million passengers, a 0.9% increase from 2018 as well as 475,861 aircraft movements, a decrease of 1,743 from 2018.[1] The airport facility is owned and operated by Heathrow Airport Holdings. Heathrow lies 14 miles (23 km) west of Central London,[3] and has two parallel east–west runways along with four operational terminals on a site that covers 12.27 square kilometres (4.74 sq mi). The airport is the primary hub for British Airways and the primary operating base for Virgin Atlantic. In September 2012, the Government of the United Kingdom established the Airports Commission, an independent commission chaired by Sir Howard Davies to examine various options for increasing capacity at UK airports. In July 2015, the commission backed a third runway at Heathrow, which the government approved in October 2016.[4][5][6] However, the England and Wales Court of Appeal rejected this plan for a third runway at Heathrow, due to concerns about climate change and the environmental impact of aviation.[7] Heathrow is 14 mi (23 km) west of central London,[3] on a parcel of land that is designated part of the Metropolitan Green Belt. It is located 3 mi (4.8 km) west of the town of Hounslow, 3 miles south of Hayes, and 3 miles north-east of Staines-upon-Thames. The airport is surrounded by the villages of Harlington, Harmondsworth, and Longford to the north and the neighbourhoods of Cranford and Hatton to the east. To the south lie Feltham, Bedfont and Stanwell while to the west Heathrow is separated from Wraysbury, Horton and Windsor in Berkshire by the M25 motorway. Heathrow falls entirely within the boundaries of the London Borough of Hillingdon, and under the Twickenham postcode area, with the postcode TW6. The airport is located within the Hayes and Harlington parliamentary constituency. As the airport is located west of London and as its runways run east–west, an airliner's landing approach is usually directly over the conurbation of London when the wind is from the west, which is most of the time. The airport forms part of a travel to work area with Slough, the west part of Greater London, and the north part of Surrey. Along with Gatwick, Stansted, Luton, Southend and London City, Heathrow is one of six airports with scheduled services serving the London area. Heathrow Airport originated in 1929 as a small airfield (Great West Aerodrome) on land south-east of the hamlet of Heathrow from which the airport takes its name. At that time the land consisted of farms, market gardens and orchards; there was a "Heathrow Farm" approximately where the modern Terminal 2 is situated, a "Heathrow Hall" and a "Heathrow House." This hamlet was largely along a country lane (Heathrow Road), which ran roughly along the east and south edges of the present central terminals area. Development of the whole Heathrow area as a much larger airport began in 1944. It was stated to be for long-distance military aircraft bound for the Far East; by the time the airfield was nearing completion, World War II had ended, and the UK Government continued to develop the airport as a civil airport. The airport was opened on 25 March 1946 as London Airport and was renamed Heathrow Airport in 1966. The layout for the airport was designed by Sir Frederick Gibberd, who designed the original terminals and central area buildings, including the original control tower and the multi-faith Chapel of St George's. Heathrow Airport is used by over 80 airlines flying to 185 destinations in 84 countries. The airport is the primary hub of British Airways and is a base for Virgin Atlantic. It has four passenger terminals (numbered 2 to 5) and a cargo terminal. Of Heathrow's 78 million passengers in 2017, 94% were international travellers; the remaining 6% were bound for (or arriving from) places in the UK.[9] The busiest single destination in passenger numbers is New York, with over 3 million passengers flying between Heathrow and JFK Airport in 2013.[10] In the 1950s, Heathrow had six runways, arranged in three pairs at different angles in the shape of a hexagram with the permanent passenger terminal in the middle and the older terminal along the north edge of the field; two of its runways would always be within 30° of the wind direction. As the required length for runways has grown, Heathrow now has only two parallel runways running east–west. These are extended versions of the two east–west runways from the original hexagram. From the air, almost all of the original runways can still be seen, incorporated into the present system of taxiways. North of the northern runway and the former taxiway and aprons, now the site of extensive car parks, is the entrance to the access tunnel and the site of Heathrow's unofficial "gate guardian". For many years the home of a 40% scale model of a British Airways Concorde, G-CONC, the site has been occupied by a model of an Emirates Airbus A380 since 2008.[11] Heathrow Airport has Anglican, Catholic, Free Church, Hindu, Jewish, Muslim and Sikh chaplains. There is a multi-faith prayer room and counselling room in each terminal, in addition to St. George's Interdenominational Chapel in an underground vault adjacent to the old control tower, where Christian services take place. The chaplains organise and lead prayers at certain times in the prayer room.[12] The airport has its own resident press corps, consisting of six photographers and one TV crew, serving all the major newspapers and television stations around the world.[13] Most of Heathrow's internal roads are initial letter coded by area: N in the north (e.g. Newall Road), E in the east (e.g. Elmdon Road), S in the south (e.g. Stratford Road), W in the west (e.g. Walrus Road), C in the centre (e.g. Camborne Road). Aircraft destined for Heathrow are usually routed to one of four holding points. Air traffic controllers at Heathrow Approach Control (based in Swanwick, Hampshire) then guide the aircraft to their final approach, merging aircraft from the four holds into a single stream of traffic, sometimes as close as 2.5 nautical miles (4.6 km; 2.9 mi) apart. Considerable use is made of continuous descent approach techniques to minimize the environmental effects of incoming aircraft, particularly at night.[14] Once an aircraft is established on its final approach, control is handed over to Heathrow Tower. When runway alternation was introduced, aircraft generated significantly more noise on departure than when landing, so a preference for westerly operations during daylight was introduced, which continues to this day.[15] In this mode, aircraft take off towards the west and land from the east over London, thereby minimizing the impact of noise on the most densely populated areas. Heathrow's two runways generally operate in segregated mode, whereby landings are allocated to one runway and takeoffs to the other. To further reduce noise nuisance to people beneath the approach and departure routes, the use of runways 27R and 27L is swapped at 15:00 each day if the wind is from the west. When landings are easterly there is no alternation; 09L remains the landing runway and 09R the takeoff runway due to the legacy of the now rescinded Cranford Agreement, pending taxiway works to allow the roles to be reversed. Occasionally, landings are allowed on the nominated departure runway, to help reduce airborne delays and to position landing aircraft closer to their terminal, reducing taxi times. Night-time flights at Heathrow are subject to restrictions. Between 23:00 and 04:00, the noisiest aircraft (rated QC/8 and QC/16) cannot be scheduled for operation. Also, during the night quota period (23:30–06:00) there are four limits: A trial of "noise relief zones" ran from December 2012 to March 2013, which concentrated approach flight paths into defined areas compared with the existing paths which were spread out. The zones used alternated weekly, meaning residents in the "no-fly" areas received respite from aircraft noise for set periods.[17] However, it was concluded that some residents in other areas experienced a significant disbenefit as a result of the trial and that it should therefore not be taken forward in its current form. Heathrow received more than 25,000 noise complaints in just three months over the summer of 2016, but around half were made by the same ten people.[18] Until it was required to sell Gatwick and Stansted Airports, Heathrow Airport Holdings held a dominant position in the London aviation market and has been heavily regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) as to how much it can charge airlines to land. The annual increase in landing charge per passenger was capped at inflation minus 3% until 1 April 2003. From 2003 to 2007 charges increased by inflation plus 6.5% per year, taking the fee to £9.28 per passenger in 2007. In March 2008, the CAA announced that the charge would be allowed to increase by 23.5% to £12.80 from 1 April 2008 and by inflation plus 7.5% for each of the following four years.[19] In April 2013, the CAA announced a proposal for Heathrow to charge fees calculated by inflation minus 1.3%, continuing until 2019.[20] Whilst the cost of landing at Heathrow is determined by the CAA and Heathrow Airport Holdings, the allocation of landing slots to airlines is carried out by Airport Co-ordination Limited (ACL).[21] Until 2008, air traffic between Heathrow and the United States was strictly governed by the countries' bilateral Bermuda II treaty. The treaty originally allowed only British Airways, Pan Am and TWA to fly from Heathrow to the US. In 1991, Pan Am and TWA sold their rights to United Airlines and American Airlines respectively, while Virgin Atlantic was added to the list of airlines allowed to operate on these routes. The Bermuda bilateral agreement conflicted with the Right of Establishment of the United Kingdom concerning its EU membership, and as a consequence, the UK was ordered to drop the agreement in 2004. A new "open skies" agreement was signed by the United States and the European Union on 30 April 2007 and came into effect on 30 March 2008. Shortly afterward, additional US airlines, including Northwest Airlines, Continental Airlines, US Airways and Delta Air Lines started services to Heathrow. The airport has been criticised in recent years for overcrowding and delays;[22] according to Heathrow Airport Holdings, Heathrow's facilities were originally designed to accommodate 55 million passengers annually. The number of passengers using the airport reached a record 70 million in 2012.[23] In 2007 the airport was voted the world's least favourite, alongside Chicago O'Hare, in a TripAdvisor survey.[24] However, the opening of Terminal 5 in 2008 has relieved some pressure on terminal facilities, increasing the airport's terminal capacity to 90 million passengers per year. A tie-up is also in place with McLaren Applied Technologies to optimize the general procedure, reducing delays and pollution.[25] With only two runways, operating at over 98% of their capacity, Heathrow has little room for more flights, although the increasing use of larger aircraft such as the Airbus A380 will allow some increase in passenger numbers. It is difficult for existing airlines to obtain landing slots to enable them to increase their services from the airport, or for new airlines to start operations.[26] To increase the number of flights, Heathrow Airport Holdings has proposed using the existing two runways in 'mixed mode' whereby aircraft would be allowed to take off and land on the same runway. This would increase the airport's capacity from its current 480,000 movements per year to as many as 550,000 according to British Airways CEO Willie Walsh.[27] Heathrow Airport Holdings has also proposed building a third runway to the north of the airport, which would significantly increase traffic capacity.[28] Policing of the airport is the responsibility of the aviation security unit of the Metropolitan Police, although the army, including armoured vehicles of the Household Cavalry, has occasionally been deployed at the airport during periods of heightened security. Full body scanners are now used at the airport, and passengers who object to their use after being selected are required to submit to a hand search in a private room.[29] The scanners display passengers' bodies as a cartoon-style figure, with indicators showing where concealed items may be.[29] The new imagery was introduced initially as a trial in September 2011 following complaints over privacy.[citation needed] Following widespread disruption caused by reports of drone sightings at Gatwick Airport, and a subsequent incident at Heathrow,[30] a drone detection system was installed airport-wide to combat possible future disruption caused by the illegal use of drones.[31] For many decades Heathrow had a reputation for theft from baggage by baggage handlers. This led to the airport being nicknamed "Thiefrow", with periodic arrests of baggage handlers.[32][33][34][35] During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Heathrow Airport saw a vast reduction in services, and announced that as of 6 April 2020, the airport would be transitioning to single runway operations, which would change on a weekly basis, and that it would be closing Terminals 3 and 4, moving all remaining flights into Terminals 2 or 5.[36] Dual runway operations were restored in August 2020. The airport's newest terminal, officially known as the Queen's Terminal, was opened on 4 June 2014.[37][38] Designed by Spanish architect Luis Vidal, it was built on the site that had been occupied by the original Terminal 2 and the Queens Building.[39][40] The main complex was completed in November 2013 and underwent six months of testing before opening to passengers. It includes a satellite pier (T2B), a 1,340-space car park, an energy center[clarification needed] and a cooling station to generate chilled water. There are 52 shops and 17 bars and restaurants.[41] Terminal 2 is used by all Star Alliance members which fly from Heathrow (consolidating the airlines under Star Alliance's co-location policy "Move Under One Roof"). Aer Lingus, Eurowings and Icelandair also operate from the terminal. The airlines moved from their original locations over six months, with only 10% of flights operating from there in the first six weeks (United Airlines' transatlantic flights) to avoid the opening problems seen at Terminal 5. On 4 June 2014, United Airlines became the first airline to move into Terminal 2 from Terminals 1 and 4 followed by All Nippon Airways, Air Canada and Air China from Terminal 3. Air New Zealand, Asiana Airlines, Croatia Airlines, LOT Polish Airlines, South African Airways, and TAP Air Portugal were the last airlines to move in on 22 October 2014.[42][43] The original Terminal 2 opened as the Europa Building in 1955 and was the airport's oldest terminal. It had an area of 49,654 m2 (534,470 sq ft) and was designed to handle around 1.2 million passengers annually. In its final years, it accommodated up to 8 million. A total of 316 million passengers passed through the terminal in its lifetime. The building was demolished in 2010, along with the Queens Building which had housed airline company offices.[44] Terminal 3 opened as the Oceanic Terminal on 13 November 1961 to handle flight departures for long-haul routes for foreign carriers to the United States, Asia and other Far Eastern destinations.[45] At this time the airport had a direct helicopter service to Central London from the gardens on the roof of the terminal building. Renamed Terminal 3 in 1968, it was expanded in 1970 with the addition of an arrivals building. Other facilities added included the UK's first moving walkways. In 2006, the new £105 million Pier 6 was completed[46] to accommodate the Airbus A380 superjumbo; Emirates and Qantas operate regular flights from Terminal 3 using the Airbus A380. Redevelopment of Terminal 3's forecourt by the addition of a new four-lane drop-off area and a large pedestrianised plaza, complete with canopy to the front of the terminal building, was completed in 2007. These improvements were intended to improve passengers' experience, reduce traffic congestion and improve security.[47] As part of this project, Virgin Atlantic was assigned its own dedicated check-in area, known as 'Zone A', which features a large sculpture and atrium. As of 2013[update], Terminal 3 has an area of 98,962 m2 (1,065,220 sq ft) and in 2011 it handled 19.8 million passengers on 104,100 flights.[48] Terminal 3 is home to Oneworld members (with the exception of Iberia and American[49], which use Terminal 5 and Malaysia Airlines, Royal Air Maroc and Qatar Airways, All of which use Terminal 4), SkyTeam members Delta Air Lines and Middle East Airlines, all new airlines, and a few unaffiliated carriers. Opened in 1986, Terminal 4 is situated to the south of the southern runway next to the cargo terminal and is connected to Terminals 2 and 3 by the Heathrow Cargo Tunnel. The terminal has an area of 105,481 m2 (1,135,390 sq ft) and is now home to the SkyTeam alliance, with the exception of Delta Air Lines and Middle East Airlines, which use Terminal 3, Oneworld carriers Malaysia Airlines and Qatar Airways, and to most unaffiliated carriers. It has undergone a £200m upgrade to enable it to accommodate 45 airlines with an upgraded forecourt to reduce traffic congestion and improve security. Most flights that go to Terminal 4 are flights coming from Central Asia, North Africa and the Middle East as well as a few flights to Europe. An extended check-in area with renovated piers and departure lounges and a new baggage system were installed, and two new stands were built to accommodate the Airbus A380; Etihad Airways, Korean Air, Malaysia Airlines and Qatar Airways operate regular A380 flights.[50] El Al operates regular Boeing 787 flights.[51] Terminal 5 lies between the northern and southern runways at the western end of the Heathrow site and was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 14 March 2008,[52] some 19 years after its inception. It opened to the public on 27 March 2008, and British Airways and its partner company Iberia have exclusive use of this terminal. The first passenger to enter Terminal 5 was a UK ex-pat from Kenya who passed through security at 04:30 on the day. He was presented with a boarding pass by the British Airways CEO Willie Walsh for the first departing flight, BA302 to Paris. During the two weeks after its opening, operations were disrupted by problems with the terminal's IT systems, coupled with insufficient testing and staff training, which caused over 500 flights to be cancelled.[53] Until March 2012, Terminal 5 was exclusively used by British Airways as its global hub; however, because of the merger, on 25 March Iberia's operations at Heathrow were moved to the terminal, making it the home of International Airlines Group.[54] On 7 July 2020, American moved to terminal 5, to allow for easier connections from American's transatlantic flights to British Airways flights. Built at £4.3 billion, the terminal consists of a four-story main terminal building (Concourse A) and two satellite buildings linked to the main terminal by an underground people mover transit system. The second satellite (Concourse C), includes dedicated aircraft stands for the Airbus A380. It became fully operational on 1 June 2011. Terminal 5 was voted Skytrax World's Best Airport Terminal 2014 in the Annual World Airport Awards.[55] The main terminal building (Concourse A) has an area of 300,000 square metres (3,200,000 sq ft) while Concourse B covers 60,000 square metres (650,000 sq ft).[56] It has 60 aircraft stands and capacity for 30 million passengers annually as well as more than 100 shops and restaurants.[57] It is also home to British Airways' Flagship lounge, the Concorde Room, alongside four further British Airways branded lounges.[58] A further building, designated Concourse D and of similar size to Concourse C, may yet be built to the east of the existing site, providing up to another 16 stands. Following British Airways' merger with Iberia, this may become a priority since the combined business will require accommodation at Heathrow under one roof to maximise the cost savings envisaged under the deal. A proposal for Concourse D featured in Heathrow's most recent capital investment plan. The transport network around the airport has been extended to cope with the increase in passenger numbers. New branches of both the Heathrow Express and the Underground's Piccadilly line serve a new shared Heathrow Terminal 5 station. A dedicated motorway spur links the terminal to the M25 (between junctions 14 and 15). The terminal has a 3,800 space multi-storey car park. A more distant long-stay car park for business passengers is connected to the terminal by a personal rapid transit system, the Heathrow Pod, which became operational in the spring of 2011.[59] Within the terminal complex, an automated people mover (APM) system, known as the Transit, is used to transport passengers between the satellite buildings.[60] As of July 2020, Heathrow's four passenger terminals are assigned as follows:[61] Following the opening of Terminal 5 in March 2008, a complex programme of terminal moves was implemented. This saw many airlines move to be grouped in terminals by airline alliance as far as possible.[62] Following the opening of Phase 1 of the new Terminal 2 in June 2014, all Star Alliance member airlines[63] (with the exception of new member Air India which moved in early 2017[64]) along with Aer Lingus and Germanwings relocated to Terminal 2 in a phased process completed on 22 October 2014. Additionally, by 30 June 2015 all airlines left Terminal 1 in preparation for its demolition to make room for the construction of Phase 2 of Terminal 2.[65] Some other airlines made further minor moves at a later point, e.g. Delta Air Lines merging all departures in Terminal 3 instead of a split between Terminals 3 and 4.[66] Terminal 1 opened in 1968 and was inaugurated by Queen Elizabeth II in April 1969.[67][68] Terminal 1 was the Heathrow base for British Airways' (BA) domestic and European network and a few of its long haul routes before Terminal 5 opened. The acquisition of British Midland International (BMI) in 2012 by BA's owner International Airlines Group meant British Airways took over BMI's short-haul and medium-haul destinations from the terminal.[69] Terminal 1 was also the main base for most Star Alliance members though some were also based at Terminal 3. Terminal 1 closed at the end of June 2015, the site is now being used to extend Terminal 2[70] which opened in June 2014. A number of the newer gates used by Terminal 1 were built as part of the Terminal 2 development and are being retained.[71][72] The last tenants along with British Airways were El Al, Icelandair (moved to Terminal 2 25 March 2015) and LATAM Brasil (the third to move in to Terminal 3 on 27 May 2015). British Airways was the last operator in Terminal 1. Two flights of this carrier, one departing to Hanover and one arriving from Baku, marked the terminal closure on 29 June 2015. British Airways operations have been relocated to Terminals 3 and 5.[73] The following airlines operate regular scheduled passenger flights at London Heathrow Airport:[74] When ranked by passenger traffic, Heathrow is the sixth busiest internationally, behind Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport, Beijing Capital International Airport, Dubai International Airport, Chicago's O'Hare International Airport, and Tokyo Haneda Airport, for the 12 months ending December 2015.[102] In 2015, Heathrow was the busiest airport in Europe in total passenger traffic, with 14% more passengers than Paris–Charles de Gaulle Airport[103] and 22% more than Istanbul Atatürk Airport.[104] Heathrow was the fourth busiest European airport by cargo traffic in 2013, after Frankfurt Airport, Paris Charles de Gaulle and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.[105] Heathrow Airport processed 80,884,310 passengers in 2019.[1] New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport was the most popular route with 3,192,195 passengers.[106] The table below shows the 10 busiest international routes at the airport in 2019. The head office of Heathrow Airport Holdings (formerly BAA Limited) is located in the Compass Centre by Heathrow's northern runway, a building that previously served as a British Airways flight crew centre.[107] The World Business Centre Heathrow consists of three buildings. 1 World Business Centre houses offices of Heathrow Airport Holdings, Heathrow Airport itself, and Scandinavian Airlines.[108] Previously International Airlines Group had its head office in 2 World Business Centre.[109][110] At one time the British Airways head office was located within Heathrow Airport at Speedbird House[111] before the completion of Waterside, the current BA head office in Harmondsworth, in June 1998.[112] To the north of the airfield lies the Northern Perimeter Road, along which most of Heathrow's car rental agencies are based, and Bath Road, which runs parallel to it, but outside the airport campus. This is nicknamed "The Strip" by locals, because of its continuous line of airport hotels. Many buses and coaches operate from the large Heathrow Central bus station serving Terminals 2 and 3, and also from bus stations at Terminals 4 and 5. All terminals lie within the Heathrow Free Travel Zone with free travel between the terminals. Terminals 2 and 3 are within walking distance of each other. Transfers from Terminals 2 and 3 to Terminal 4 and 5 are provided by Heathrow Express trains and the London Underground Piccadilly line.[115] Direct transfer between Terminals 4 and 5 is provided by London Buses routes 482 and 490.[116] Transit passengers remaining airside are provided with free dedicated transfer buses between terminals. The Heathrow Pod personal rapid transit system shuttles passengers between Terminal 5 and the business car park using 21 small, driverless transportation pods. The pods are battery-powered and run on-demand on a four-kilometre track, each able to carry up to four adults, two children, and their luggage.[117] Plans exist to extend the Pod system to connect Terminals 2 and 3 to remote car parks.[118] An underground automated people mover system known as the Transit operates within Terminal 5, linking the main terminal with the satellite Terminals 5B and 5C. The Transit operates entirely airside using Bombardier Innovia APM 200 people mover vehicles.[119][120] The Hotel Hoppa bus network connects all terminals to major hotels in the area.[121] Taxis are available at all terminals.[122] Heathrow is accessible via the nearby M4 motorway or A4 road (Terminals 2–3), the M25 motorway (Terminals 4 and 5) and the A30 road (Terminal 4). There are drop-off and pick-up areas at all terminals and short-[124] and long-stay[125] multi-storey car parks. All the Heathrow forecourts are drop-off only.[126] There are further car parks, not run by Heathrow Airport Holdings, just outside the airport: the most recognisable is the National Car Parks facility, although there are many other options; these car parks are connected to the terminals by shuttle buses. Four parallel tunnels under the northern runway connect the M4 Heathrow spur and the A4 road to Terminals 2–3. The two larger tunnels are each two lanes wide and are used for motorised traffic. The two smaller tunnels were originally reserved for pedestrians and bicycles; to increase traffic capacity the cycle lanes have been modified to each take a single lane of cars, although bicycles still have priority over cars. Pedestrian access to the smaller tunnels has been discontinued, with the free bus services being used instead. There are (mainly off-road) bicycle routes to some of the terminals.[127] Free bicycle parking places are available in car parks 1 and 1A, at Terminal 4, and to the North and South of Terminal 5's Interchange Plaza. Cycling is not currently allowed through the main tunnel to access Terminals 2 and 3 (Terminal 1 closed in 2015).[128] There is a long history of expansion proposals for Heathrow since it was first designated as a civil airport. Following the cancellation of the Maplin project in 1974, a fourth terminal was proposed but expansion beyond this ruled out. However, the Airports Inquiries of 1981–83 and the 1985 Airports Policy White Paper considered further expansion and, following a four-year-long public inquiry in 1995–99, Terminal 5 was approved. In 2003, after many studies and consultations, the Future of Air Transport White Paper was published which proposed a third runway at Heathrow, as well as a second runway at Stansted Airport.[161] In January 2009, the Transport Secretary at the time, Geoff Hoon announced that the British government supported the expansion of Heathrow by building a third 2,200-metre (7,200 ft) runway and a sixth terminal building.[162] This decision followed the 2003 white paper on the future of air transport in the UK,[163] and a public consultation in November 2007.[164] This was a controversial decision which met with widespread opposition because of the expected greenhouse gas emissions, impact on local communities, as well as noise and air pollution concerns.[165] Before the 2010 general election, the Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties announced that they would prevent the construction of any third runway or further material expansion of the airport's operating capacity. The Mayor of London, then Boris Johnson, took the position that London needs more airport capacity, favouring the construction of an entirely new airport in the Thames Estuary rather than expanding Heathrow.[166] After the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition took power, it was announced that the third runway expansion was cancelled.[167] Two years later, leading Conservatives were reported to have changed their minds on the subject.[168] Another proposal for expanding Heathrow's capacity was the Heathrow Hub, which aims to extend both runways to a total length of about 7,000 metres and divide them into four so that they each provide two, full length runways, allowing simultaneous take-offs and landings while decreasing noise levels.[169][170] In July 2013, the airport submitted three new proposals for expansion to the Airports Commission, which was established to review airport capacity in the southeast of England. The Airports Commission was chaired by Sir Howard Davies who, at the time of his appointment was in the employ of GIC Private Limited (formerly known as Government Investment Corporation of Singapore) and a member of its International Advisory Board. GIC Private Limited was then (2012), as it remains today, one of Heathrow's principal owners. Sir Howard Davies resigned these positions upon confirmation of his appointment to lead the Airports Commission, although it has been observed that he failed to identify these interests when invited to complete the Airports Commission's register of interests. Each of the three proposals that were to be considered by Sir Howard Davies's commission involved the construction of a third runway, either to the north, northwest or southwest of the airport.[171] The commission released its interim report in December 2013, shortlisting three options: the north-west third runway option at Heathrow, extending an existing runway at Heathrow, and a second runway at Gatwick Airport. After this report was published, the government confirmed that no options had been ruled out for airport expansion in the South-east and that a new runway would not be built at Heathrow before 2015.[172] The full report was published on 1 July 2015, and backed a third, north-west, runway at Heathrow.[173] Reaction to the report was generally negative, particularly from London Mayor Boris Johnson. One senior Conservative told Channel 4: "Howard Davies has dumped an utter steaming pile of poo on the Prime Minister's desk."[174] On 25 October 2016, the government confirmed that Heathrow would be allowed to build a third runway; however, a final decision would not be taken until winter of 2017/18, after consultations and government votes. The earliest opening year would be 2025. On 5 June 2018, the UK Cabinet approved the third runway, with a full vote planned for Parliament.[175] On 25 June 2018, the House of Commons voted, 415–119, in favour of the third runway. The bill received support from most MPs in the Conservative and Labour parties.[176] A judicial review against the decision is being launched by four London local authorities affected by the expansion—Wandsworth, Richmond, Hillingdon and Hammersmith and Fulham—in partnership with Greenpeace and London mayor Sadiq Khan.[177] Khan previously stated he would take legal action if it were passed by Parliament.[178] Currently, all rail connections with Heathrow Airport run along an east–west alignment to and from central London, and a number of schemes have been proposed over the years to develop new rail transport links with other parts of London and with stations outside the city.[179] This mainline rail service is due to be extended to central London and Essex when the Elizabeth line, currently under construction, opens.[180] A 2009 proposal to create a southern link with London Waterloo via the Waterloo–Reading line was abandoned in 2011 due to lack of funding and difficulties with a high number of level crossings on the route into London,[181][182] and a plan to link Heathrow to the planned High Speed 2 (HS2) railway line (with a new station, Heathrow Hub) was also dropped from the HS2 plans in March 2015.[183][184][185] Among other schemes that have been considered is a rapid transport link between Heathrow and Gatwick Airports, known as Heathwick, which would allow the airports to operate jointly as an airline hub;[186][187] In 2018, the Department for Transport began to invite proposals for privately funded rail links to Heathrow Airport.[188] Projects being considered under this initiative include: The Mayor of London's office and Transport for London commissioned plans in the event of Heathrow's closure—to replace it by a large built-up area.[192][193][194] Some of the plans seem to show terminal 5, or part of it, kept as a shopping centre.  London transport portal

DB Class VT 11.5

The trainsets of Class VT 11.5 (often simply called TEE) were diesel multiple units built by Deutsche Bundesbahn (DB) in 1957 and used for Trans Europ Express (TEE) services. Perceived as flagships of the DB rolling stock, they carried first-class seating only. When the UIC numbering scheme became effective on 1 January 1968, the power heads of the trainsets were renamed to Class 601 whilst the middle cars became Class 901 according to the DB locomotive classification. They were used for TEE service from 1957 until 1972 and thereafter on German InterCity services.[1] The VT 11.5 was based on the prewar DRG Class SVT 137 and the innovative designs by Franz Kruckenberg[2] as well as on the experiences with the postwar DB Class VT 10.5.[3] Mostly the trainsets consisted of two motor units built by MAN AG, one dining and kitchen car, one dining and bar car built by Wegmann & Co., and three coaches assembled by Linke-Hofmann-Busch.[4] The weight of a seven-unit trainset was 230 t (230 long tons; 250 short tons), the length was 130 m (426 ft 6 1⁄8 in). Motor units and coaches were coupled by automatic Scharfenberg couplers, thus allowing trainsets up to ten units and coupling of two trainsets.[5] From 1963 a second series of these trains were sold to the Danish State Railways (DSB) for use as national express trains (lyntog, meaning 'lightning trains').[6] This was a modified version which could be separated into two independent units and loaded onto the Great Belt ferries, and a total of ​5 1⁄2 whole or 11 half units were sold.[7] It was given the designation "litra MA", ranging from MA 460 to 470. In 1984 the trains were painted in a silvery color, which resulted in the nickname "Sølvpilen" (Silver arrow). In 1990 these trains were phased out from Danish service and donated to a Polish railway (first private in Poland - Lubuska Kolej Regionalna Spółka z o.o.). After collapse of that private railway (1994), all these trains were scrapped. [8] One half unit (The MA 460) was not donated to the Polish railway, but given to the Danish Railway Museum, where it still remains operating as a museum train. The first trains were commissioned in 1957 and used on the following international TEE routes: In the 1960s, due to ongoing electrification, routes like the TEE Helvetia were changed to electric locomotive-hauled train sets. The diesel trainsets were reallocated to other TEE routes: In 1971, DB started their new first-class-only InterCity system, using mainly the 601 series on the non-electrified InterCity routes.[16] The regular maximum speed was set to 160 km/h for seven-unit trains. For trains up to 10 units the 602 was used. In 1979, the InterCity system was expanded and second-class compartments were introduced for these trains, meaning the end of 601/602 use for these trains.[17] From 1980, the 601/901 was used for special tourist services.[17] These trains had ten units including refitted open seating cars; sometimes two trainsets were coupled to form a 20-unit train. This "Alpen-See-Express" ran scheduled from Hamburg and Dortmund to southern German and Austrian destinations, including Berchtesgaden, Lindau, Oberstdorf, Innsbruck, Zell am See, and Salzburg. This service ended in 1988, when all 601s except the two scrapped (601 002 and 901 403) were sold to Italy.[18] The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 led to a new life for the 601 as an InterCity train. One of the 10-unit trains was loaned from Italy to the East German Reichsbahn (DR) and served from July 27, 1990, to September 29, 1990, as InterCity Max Liebermann on the route Hamburg–Berlin.[19] One part of this train had been later repainted blue-beige and is still to be seen at the Augsburg Railway Park museum. It today houses a restaurant run by celebrity chef Alfons Schuhbeck. The VT 11.5, later 601 had two motor units at the head and the tail of the train. Each one had an 809 kW diesel from MTU and a hydraulic transmission from Voith or Maybach. The maximum speed was 140 km/h (87 mph), later 160 km/h (99 mph). All coaches were air-conditioned.[20] In order to run ten-unit trains with a maximum speed of 160 km/h, four VT 11.5 were rebuilt in 1970 and received 2,200-horsepower (1,600 kW) AVCO Lycoming TF55 gas turbines supplied under license by Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz in place of their original 1,100-horsepower (820 kW) Diesel engines.[1] They were renumbered as Class 602 001–004 (ex-Class 601 nos. 012, 003, 007 and 010, respectively),[1] recognizably from the large dimensioned air intakes, and used for DB InterCity service, starting with the train connection between Hamburg and Ludwigshafen in July 1974. From 1975, a mixed operation with diesel and gas turbine power heads was made possible. During test runs in April 1975, a train with two 602 and two coaches ran 217 km/h on the Hanover–Hamburg railway line, a new German record for trains powered by combustion engines (equalled only in 2000 by an ICE TD train). Since the turbines caused some problems and had higher fuel consumption, the 602, like the DB Class 210, were taken out of service by 1979.[21] One trainset has been preserved in operating condition by DB, consisting of power cars VT 11.5 5014/19[1] and eight unpowered cars, and it operates occasionally on special excursions, including for private hire. The only other car preserved from this series is VT 11.5 5012 (as 602 003, its later number), preserved at the Nuremberg Transport Museum.[1]

Marwan al-Shehhi

Marwan Yousef Mohamed Rashid Lekrab al-Shehhi (Arabic: مروان يوسف محمد رشيد لكراب الشحي‎, Marwān Yūsuf Muḥammad Rashīd Lekrāb ash-Sheḥḥī, also transliterated as Alshehhi;[1] 9 May 1978[2] – 11 September 2001) was the hijacker-pilot of United Airlines Flight 175, crashing the Boeing 767 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center as part of the September 11 attacks. Al-Shehhi was a student from the United Arab Emirates who moved to Germany in 1996 and soon became close friends with Mohamed Atta, Ziad Jarrah and Ramzi bin al-Shibh, forming the Hamburg cell. Together, after pledging their lives to martyrdom, they became the leaders of the September 11 attacks. In late 1999, al-Shehhi, Atta, Jarrah, and bin al-Shibh traveled to terrorist training camps in Afghanistan and met with Osama bin Laden who recruited the four Hamburg cell members for the attacks in the United States. He arrived in the United States in May 2000, one month before Atta. Atta, Al-Shehhi, and Jarrah had been trained as pilots in Florida at Huffman Aviation, receiving their commercial pilot licenses in December 2000 and January 2001 from the FAA. Al-Shehhi spent his time making preparations for the attack itself, such as meeting with crucial planners abroad, assisting with the arrival of hijackers aboard the other flights, and travelling on surveillance flights determining details on how the hijacking would take place. On September 9, 2001, he traveled from Florida to Boston, where he stayed at the Milner Hotel until September 11. After boarding United Airlines Flight 175 at Logan International Airport, al-Shehhi and 4 other hijackers waited 30 minutes into the flight to make their attack, which then allowed al-Shehhi to take over control as pilot, and at 9:03 a.m., 17 minutes after Mohamed Atta crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into the North Tower, al-Shehhi crashed the Boeing 767 into the South Tower of the World Trade Center.[3] At 23 years of age, he was the youngest hijacker-pilot to participate in the attacks. The impact of the Boeing 767 operating as United 175 into the South Tower was seen live on television as it happened. At 9:59 a.m., after 56 minutes of burning, the 110-story skyscraper collapsed, killing hundreds of people, including around 900 office workers and first responders. Al-Shehhi was born in Ras al-Khaimah, on 9 May 1978, in the United Arab Emirates, to a Muslim cleric who died in 1997 and an Egyptian mother. Described as a quiet and devout Muslim, details about al-Shehhi's life in the UAE, however, are difficult to acquire. According to an October 2001 article in the New York Times, "If residents of Mr. Shehhi's hometown had heard of him before now, they were certainly not telling strangers. Four hours spent in the community yielded no address and no one -- policemen, firemen, pedestrians or local officials -- who did anything more than shrug at the mention of his name."[4] After graduating from high school in 1995, al-Shehhi enlisted in the Emirati military and received a half a year of basic training before he was admitted into a military scholarship program that allowed him to continue his education in Germany. Upon arriving in Germany in April 1996, al-Shehhi moved into an apartment, which he shared with three other scholarship students for two months before boarding with a local German family. Several months later, he moved into his own apartment. Those who knew him described al-Shehhi as a very religious and friendly individual who wore western clothes and sometimes rented cars for trips to Berlin, France, and the Netherlands.[citation needed] His teacher in Germany, Gabriele Bock, recalls him as someone who seemed to be struggling to have plans to the future while studying there.[5] While in Germany, al-Shehhi enrolled in the University of Bonn after completing a German course. He left Germany in June 1997 to attend to problems at home although the university forbade him. In early 1998, al-Shehhi transferred to the Technical University of Hamburg. A poor student, al-Shehhi was directed by the Scholarship program administrators to repeat a semester of his studies back in Bonn beginning in August 1998. Al-Shehhi did not enroll back at Bonn until January 1999 and continued to struggle with his studies. By July 1999, Marwan returned to Hamburg to study shipbuilding.[6] It has been reported al-Shehhi also married in 1999, helding a belated celebration in January 2000. [7] After moving to Hamburg in 1998, al-Shehhi helped form the Hamburg cell with Mohamed Atta and Ramzi bin al-Shibh. There, his views became more and more radical. They met three or four times a week to discuss anti-American feelings and plot possible attacks. When someone asked why he and Atta never laughed, al-Shehhi retorted, "How can you laugh when people are dying in Palestine?"[8] On 9 October 1999, Marwan al-Shehhi was filmed at Said Bahaji's wedding in Germany with other 9/11 hijackers including Ziad Jarrah.[9][10] In late 1999, al-Shehhi, Atta, Ziad Jarrah, Said Bahaji, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh decided to travel to Chechnya to fight against the Russians, but were convinced by Khalid al-Masri and Mohamedou Ould Slahi at the last minute to change their plans. They instead traveled to Afghanistan to meet with Osama bin Laden and trained for terrorist attacks. Immediately afterwards, Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah reported their passports stolen, possibly to erase travel visas to Afghanistan. After their training, the hijackers began to attempt to hide their radicalism. al-Shehhi shaved his beard and seemed to his old friends like he had become less religious. After the attacks, a librarian in Hamburg reported that al-Shehhi boasted to her "There will be thousands of dead. You will think of me ... You will see, in America something is going to happen. There will be many people killed."[11][12][13] Al-Shehhi returned to Germany in March 2000, and began to learn to fly airplanes. Ammar al-Baluchi, one of the most important 9/11 financial organizers, bought a Boeing 747 flight simulator program using al-Shehhi's credit card. Eventually they decided that German flight schools would not work for them, and they decided to train in the United States.[citation needed] Al-Shehhi was the first of the Hamburg group to leave for the United States. He arrived in Newark, New Jersey on 29 May 2000. Atta and Jarrah joined him the next month, and the three men began to search for flight schools. Al-Shehhi and Jarrah posed as a body guards of Atta, who were also posing as a "Saudi Arabian royal family member" while the three of them took flying lessons in Venice, Florida. They logged hundreds of hours on a Boeing 727 flight simulator. They received their licenses by December 2000. Their expenses were paid for by Ali Abdul Aziz Ali. On either 26 or 27 December, Atta, and Marwan abandoned a Piper Cherokee that had stalled on the runway of Miami International Airport. On 29 December, Atta, Jarrah and Marwan went to the Opa-Locka Airport and practiced on a Boeing 727 simulator. Al-Shehhi began to take "surveillance flights" in the summer of 2001, watching the operations of flight crews and making final preparations.[citation needed] Ziad Jarrah, Atta, and al-Shehhi, having progressed in their training, all took foreign trips during the holiday period of 2000-2001. When Atta returned to Florida, al-Shehhi left for Morocco, traveling to Casablanca in mid-January 2001. al-Shehhi's family, concerned about not having heard from him, reported him missing to the UAE government. The UAE embassy in turn contacted the Hamburg police and a UAE representative tried to find him in Germany, visiting mosques and al-Shehhi's last address in Hamburg. After learning that his family was looking for him, al-Shehhi telephoned them on 20 January and said he was living and studying in Hamburg. The UAE government then told the Hamburg police they could call off the search. Atta and al-Shehhi both encountered some difficulty reentering the United States, on 10 January and 19 January, respectively. As neither had presented a student visa, both of them had to persuade INS inspectors that they should be admitted so that they could continue their flight training. Neither operative had any problem clearing customs. After returning to Florida from their trips, Atta and al-Shehhi visited Georgia, staying briefly in Norcross and Decatur, and renting a single-engine plane to fly with an instructor in Lawrenceville. By 19 February, Atta and al-Shehhi were in Virginia. They had rented a mailbox in Virginia Beach, cashed a check, and then promptly returned to Georgia, staying in Stone Mountain. In mid-March, Ziad Jarrah was in Georgia as well, staying in Decatur. At the end of the month, Jarrah left the United States again and visited Sengün in Germany for two weeks. In early April, Atta and al-Shehhi returned to Virginia Beach and closed the mailbox they had opened in February. Atta and al-Shehhi returned to Virginia Beach from their travels in Georgia, making their way to a large Dar Al-Hijrah mosque, sometime in early April. They were joined there by 9/11 hijackers Nawaf al-Hazmi and Hani Hanjour who had moved out of San Diego and Arizona after living in or visiting Abdussattar Shaikh's house, where Khalid al-Mihdhar also stayed. In January, the mosque had recently hired the same imam Anwar al-Awlaki with whom Hazmi had spent time at the Rabat mosque in San Diego. He remembered Hazmi from San Diego but denied having contact with Hazmi or Hanjour in Virginia. Atta and al-Shehhi returned to Florida and moved into an apartment in Coral Springs. Atta stayed in Florida, awaiting the arrival of the first hijackers. Al-Shehhi, on the other hand, bought a ticket to Cairo and flew there from Miami on 18 April. Al-Shehhi met with Atta's father, who stated in a post-9/11 interview that al-Shehhi wanted to pick up Atta's international driver's license and some money. Al-Shehhi returned to Miami on 2 May. That day, Atta and Jarrah were together, about 30 miles to the north, visiting a Department of Motor Vehicles office in Lauderdale Lakes, Florida, to get Florida driver's licenses. In mid-July 2001, some of the hijackers and members of the Hamburg cell gathered near Salou, Spain, for a period of a few days up to a couple of weeks. Since hotel records are sparse during some of that time, it is thought that they may have spent considerable time in and around safe houses related to the al-Qaeda leader in Spain, Imad Yarkas. After 9/11, Spanish investigators followed the trails backwards, and the events they uncovered were chronicled in the Spanish nationwide newspaper El País. Witnesses told Spanish investigators they saw a man who resembled al-Shehhi on 17 July 2001 at the Universal Studios Port Aventura theme park next to Salou, Spain. The visitor, who was accompanied by two men, inquired about rides at the customer service counter. Witnesses indicated these companions resembled Ziad Jarrah, the later pilot on United Airlines Flight 93, and Said Bahaji, a then 26-year-old German-Moroccan member of the al-Qaeda cell in Hamburg. Back in Germany, it had been Bahaji's 1999 wedding during which al-Shehhi was filmed. Other witnesses elsewhere had pointed out Bahaji from photos, as one of the men they saw in Spain. But Bahaji bore a resemblance in appearance to Atta, who was traced to the same areas in Spain via hotel and travel records. On 23 August, the Israeli Mossad reportedly gave al-Shehhi's name to the CIA as part of a list of 19 names they said were planning an attack in the near future. Only four of the names are known for certain, including al-Shehhi; Nawaf al-Hazmi, Mohamed Atta, and Khalid al-Mihdhar.[14][15] On 26 August, Marwan signed into the Panther Motel in Deerfield Beach, Florida, paying US$500, saying he wanted to stay until 2 September, and listing a Mailboxes Etc. as his permanent address. His register entry indicated that he was driving a blue Chevrolet Malibu, assumed to be the one rented by Atta two weeks prior, and manager Richard Surma said that he bent rules to allow Marwan to have another man as an overnight guest. On 28 August, Marwan went to the Miami International Airport, accompanied by an unknown man, where he purchased his ticket for Flight 175.[16] On 9 September, the motel manager, cleaning the room that al-Shehhi had vacated, found a bag containing a German/English dictionary, a protractor, flight manuals and local airport listings. Another employee later reported finding a box cutter.[citation needed] According to librarian Kathleen Hensmen, Wail al-Shehri and Waleed al-Shehri used Internet access at Delray Beach Public Library in August 2001, where they may have been looking at information on crop dusting. They reportedly left the library with a third middle-eastern man, thought to be Marwan al-Shehhi, whom Hensmen claimed asked her for the name of a local restaurant. Staff at Shuckum's Oyster Pub and Seafood Grill in Hollywood, Florida claimed they recognized both Atta and Marwan as two of the people who had been at the restaurant on either 7 or 8 September. While there are varying stories about Atta's activities, all sources indicate that al-Shehhi drank rum and coke while talking to the others. On 9 September, they flew to Boston. The next day, al-Shehhi and three of the other hijackers, Fayez Banihammad, Mohand al-Shehri, and Satam al-Suqami, shared a room at the Milner Hotel in Boston.[citation needed] According to the 9/11 Commission Report, al-Shehhi made a 3-minute call to Mohamed Atta (6:52-6:55 a.m.) on 11 September from within Logan International Airport as both American 11 and United 175 were to fly from Boston Logan to Los Angeles International Airport. al-Shehhi boarded United 175 at 7:27 a.m. Around 30 minutes into the flight, between 8:42 and 8:46 a.m., the plane was hijacked. During the flight, the plane narrowly avoided a mid-air collision with another aircraft, Delta Airlines Flight 2315. Several calls were made from the plane to relatives, the passengers learning of the fate of American 11. The plane was flown into the South Tower of the World Trade Center at 9:03:02 a.m. The plane crashed with a speed of approximately 590 mph (950 km/h) while carrying about 10,000 gallons (37,850 litres) of jet fuel. It was seen live on television around the world as it crashed into the South Tower, being filmed from multiple vantage points. al-Shehhi flew the plane faster and lower into the tower than Atta did, into the eastern half of the South Tower's southern facade close to the southeast corner, leading to the South Tower collapsing before the North Tower, which was the first to be hit.

the stampede in bonn om tuk killed 345 cambodian

� The Stampede took place on November 22th, on the diamonds island in Phnom Penh. At least 345 people have been killed and 410 people were wounded, the estimated number of deaths will increase inn th...

ski hire meribel enjoy hassel free ski holidays with ski hire

Normal 0 false false false MicrosoftInternetExplorer4 st1\:*{behavior:url(#ieooui) } /* Style Definitions */ ...Meribel is in the heart of the Three Valleys skiing area in the French Alps. It�s Europe�s favourite skiing destination with stunning scenery and excellent snow conditions for a wonderful ski holiday. Travel to the ski slopes is now very convenient with budget airlines and trains offering their services from UK to the ski destinations in France.�But travelling with all your bulky winter clothes, accessories and the heavy, large bags of your ski equipment is not an easy thing. At the same time, buying ski equipment is not an option if you are only going for a season. �Also, ski gear is expensive and requires maintenance and care to keep it in top condition. With the constant upgrades and latest models available in skis, your gear can quickly become outdated. Another issue is that your ski gear needs to match the snow conditions at the ski resort. With your own equipment, you are stuck with equipment that�s not quite suited to the snow conditions at Meribel. For all these reasons, many skiers prefer ski hire at Meribel. The advantages are many: its convenient- lighter and hassel free travel, cheaper than buying your own ski equipment. You are also assured that you will get ski gear that�s in excellent condition and just suited to the snow conditions and for your skiing level. The ski hire services at Meribel cater to all levels of skiers from beginners to advanced skiiers. Hiring ski equipment may also be a good idea for young children. They'll outgrow their boots, if not their skis, in a season, sometimes quicker.�Here are tips on ways to save money when skiing, including purchasing equipment inexpensively in Meribel. ������These are some of the important things to bear in mind while hiring skis and ski equipment at Meribel. You can visit (website URL) for details, information and discount offers for ski hire at Meribel.��For further information log on to http://www.ski-hire-meribel.com or email to prasad@sprintsoftservices.com��Key words: �ski hire meribel, ski hire meribel ski hire, ski rent meribel, ski hire services in meribel, ski hire in meribel, ski hire france

get chauffeur and car service in london

London chauffeuring is the most favored choice for wedding car hire. You can always get in touch with them if looking for great quality car hire. They will always help you in searching for the affordable car hire and more. They will provide car hire at low costs as compared to market rates.There are a lot of events which comes in our life and sometimes, we do feel that our special moment should be made more special. But have you ever wondered how? If you really want your celebration of being different and completely awesome then you need to go for chauffeur car service in London. If you are having any celebration like birthdays, anniversary, wedding, business meeting, corporate events we will be there with a car and chauffeur that you put some more star in your personality and you will be the talk of the town for years to come. Sometimes it may happen that you may need to travel a lot for your business related work or maybe if you are in holiday, then you might need a upper class vehicles, by which you can enjoy your several rides with us, which you will be doing for your business travel or for holiday shopping spree for your next holiday destination. We will act as an extension to all your travelling services for your business or holiday times. We will also make sure that you have good times with the travel and as well as get the best impression as being in any profession. Simply stand out among others and get noticed in front of everyone. We are not just a chauffeur car service provider in London, we are more than that. We also provide chauffeured service for road shoe also, we will also prove you with the management service for the road show as well. We are a complete solution for your travel luxury, Grand entry and much more, we are there for you. If you need to be special, then simply contact us and we will be available for you 24 hours a day. If you do need to get into the city of London with a high standard, then we have also got to pick up and drop service for some of the airports of London namely, Heathrow, Stansted, Gatwick and Luton. Our services of airport pick up and drop service, which make you reach your place at a very fresh mood and as well as relaxed. You don't have to be really tried after you reach your hotel or destination, thanks to our airports pick-up services, which will help you bring your experience alive and fresh. We are always keep an eye on the flight information, so that we reach before you and give you the best journey to your destination, by using our satellite navigation features, so that you don't have to go to the hassle of the roads and we make possible that we take you to your destination by the short and the smoothest road. We also make sure that if there is any delay to your flight, so that we can work accordingly for your comfort, which you won't keep on waiting for us, to have a pleasant and lavish journey with us and make it a memorable forever.

car hire vienna for relaxing holidays

With the car hire Vienna, you will be able to set the pace of your vacation and only go to the places you want to go. Furthermore, you will not be restricted by the schedules of public transportation. If you want to travel to a far away destination, the car hire is more economical than even the train. Car hire is cheap and will let you drive to your destinations with pinpoint accuracy.

sports car hire of your choice from a reliable firm

First of all, sports car hire is everybody�s dream solution to car hire problems. Making a choice for a Lamborghini hire is not something that should be taken lightly. This could cost you a lot of money if you are not cautious of the company that will be offering you the rental services.

hire and hope is that your plan for growth

�If they can fog a mirror we�ll hire them.��If their crimes weren�t too bad, we�ll give them a job.��We�ll hire whatever applicants we can get.�

how to hire for success

So you�re at a place where you need to hire employees: how can you improve the odds that you�ll hire well? Follow some basic guidelines.1.��� Know what you wantThe mistake we make is paying attention to the position and not the people. In order to hire effectively you need to have real clarity around what you want in an employee. You can teach someone a task. You can�t teach someone attitude. So, put down on paper what you want in an individual. Start with the simple stuff like:��������� They come to work on time every day��������� They are positive��������� They are good at working on their own��������� They are team players Now go deeper. What is it that you really seek in employees. Do you want them to make decisions on their own? Do you want them to be team builders or just team players? Do you want them to be creative or stick to the script? The more you understand about what you want in an employee the better you�ll interview. 2.��� Know yourselfWho you are and how you operate really matters when hiring. If you are the type who is very hands-off, you don�t want to hire people who need a lot of direction. See what I mean? How do you communicate? How do you like to be communicated with? How much time do you spend in the office? How well do you know the tasks of the position you are hiring for? Personality is key � yours and theirs. So take some time to do an assessment of your style, beliefs, and attitudes. You want to hire people who you mesh with. Don�t hire them for task and expect them to change to fit your style. That�s just asking for trouble. 3.��� Interview for depthI think it�s critically important to develop an interviewing process that is solid. It deserves some real time and attention before you ever advertise the opening. Craft your questions and put them in writing. These questions should not only shed light on the candidate�s skill, but on their beliefs and personality. You are trying to get to know them on a deeper level. You want to be sure you are hiring people who will fit with your culture. Have other employees interview them as well. Gaining the perspective of others, especially those who will be working with the candidate, can help you make the right pick. If you don�t currently have employees, ask your advisors, trusted colleagues, or coach to participate in the interviewing process. Take care to give hiring serious attention. Who you hire will have a huge impact on the success of your company. Making good choices when it comes to personality, drive, skill, and fit will save you grief and downtime in the future. You don�t want to be spending time dealing with staff issues if you can help it. And you can help it when you create a system to hire for success.

helpful tips when searching for access platforms for hire

It doesn’t matter the reason why you might need to hire an access platform. The one thing that you need to make sure about, is that you are going to know how to find the right place where you can hire the platforms. There are some safety things that you should consider when you are looking for these platforms for hire.You don’t want to risk your or your worker's safety by hiring an access platform that isn’t going to be safe and secure. With these tips, you will know for sure that you will be safe when you are working on the platform and that you will the work is done in no time.Know what type of access platform you will needFirst of all. You need to make sure that you know what type of access platform you will need. There are different types of platforms that you can hire. Different heights that they can go to. Some are small where only one person can fit on. Others are larger where a group of people can work on.Make sure that you know exactly what type of working platform you will need before you hire one. Otherwise, you are just going to waste money on hiring the wrong platform.Check the condition of the access platforms for hire Before you take the access platform and actually hire it, there are a couple of things that you should make sure about. You need to make sure about the condition of the access platform.Normally these platforms have standard safety features that should be in working order. So, this is something that you need to make sure about before you are hiring the platform. You need to check the overall condition of the platform as well. Does it look if the platform is well maintained, or is it a platform that looks if it can break at any given moment? You need to consider you and your, safe when you are working on the platform.Make sure about when last the platforms were servicedYou have the right to ask to see the access platform’s serviced papers. To make sure that it has been serviced on time and on a regular basis. If you are hiring an access platform and you are paying by the day, the last thing that you want is to have a platform that is breaking down. Then, you will need to pay more, at the end of the day.If the company doesn’t want to give you the information about the platform being serviced, then you need to walk away.When you hire the access platform, will you get an operator with it?This is something that you need to consider. When you are hiring the custom access platform, will you be able to operate it correctly? Or, will they be giving you an operator with it? Some companies are giving an operator with the right experience with the platform, to ensure that the platform isn’t damaged.However, this isn’t something that is always done. So, you need to make sure about it, before you are hiring the access platform if you know you can’t operate it safely.With these tips, you will be able to find and hire the best access platform for hire. You will know what to look for and what to consider when you are hiring a safe and secure platform. Don’t ever put your and your worker's safety in jeopardy, just to get a cheap platform for hire. Rather pay more for a safe platform that is in good condition and that will ensure your safety comes first.

car hire in dublin

If you are planning to come to Dublin you should hire your own car. Hiring your own car on a travel vacation makes all the experience more memorable and enjoyable. Your very own vehicle gives you complete control of your route and will allow you to enjoy every destination with full spirits. Car hire is now more popular as it is more comfortable and also provides privacy of being with friends and family. So, read on to know about Car hire and rental in Dublin and Ireland.

how to choose between a self hire van or a man with a van

Moving can be a stressful time in anyone's life, but it doesn't have to be. Tick one thing off your list by booking your removal van hire.�You’ve found your dream home, now the next step is to move in! But how do you go about saving money during the move?�Obviously, the last thing you want to do is spend money on things you could have got cheaper, but you probably don’t have time to research and receive quotes from various companies around all the packing.�One thing that will certainly need doing and can end up being quite costly is the move itself. Removal companies can be a bit of a minefield- who do you choose to look after your most loved possessions and furniture? Can you rely on the company to be reliable? Have you looked into the various options for your moving day?�It might be that hiring a van yourself will be a more suitable option as this will enable you to choose your moving time and will allow you to get things done on your own schedule.�So, why choose a self-hire van?�Sure, hiring a van yourself will mean that you’ll be doing the heavy lifting but it also means that you won’t have to worry about other people’s reliability and timings.�Self-hire vans also offer complete flexibility and if you choose the right company, you’ll get it at a great price too.�Being able to choose your own hire times can relieve a lot of stress. Specifically, it means that you’re not relying on someone else for arrival and drop off times. In short, the move can be completely worked around you and your requirements.�On top of this, you can choose how long you would like your van hire for. Whether you’re working your move around your full-time job and need it for over a week, or you require your moving van hire for just a day, you can pick and choose what’s best for you.�Finally, you know how much you need moving. Self-hire removal vans give you the option to choose which van is right for you, which will, in turn, adjust the final cost. So, if you’re moving a small flats worth of furniture and need a smaller van, you won’t have to pay the price of an unnecessarily large van.�Of course, you’ll need to ensure that you’re licensed to drive a van. Not all licenses cover this and must be checked before you make a booking.���You also want to make sure that you’re confident at driving a large van if you are only used to driving small cars. You don’t want something to happen on the way to your new home with all of your belongings sat in the back.�Finally, you need to consider if you’ll have help during your move. It would be near impossible to move on your own. Lifting large items such as sofas and tables is by no means a one-man job. Make sure that you will have help on the week you’re planning to move before booking anything.��How about a removal company?�Removal companies are great if you don’t feel like you can do all the heavy lifting. They will take care of pretty much all of this for you. Some removal companies will even pack for you- bonus, right?�Of course, this all depends on your budget and cost.�If you’re moving on your own, then a removal company would be highly recommended. As previously mentioned, it would be near to impossible to pack and move everything on your own or with very little help.�The best part of hiring a removal company is that most of them are insured. If you choose to move on your own you could be in risk of damaging your furniture, simply because you don’t have the experience of heavy lifting and possibly driving a larger vehicle. However, with a removal company, they should be insured if anything was to happen to your possessions, giving you peace of mind during the move.�Whatever route you choose to take, make sure to always do your research.�With a self-hire company, you’ll need to know that the vehicle you have hired is in good condition and won’t break down on the way to your new home. As well as this, you need to ensure that the company is well known and highly reviewed. You really don’t need any bad customer service on top of everything else.�For the removal company, look up reviews to see if they are reliable, efficient and most of all, that they care! There is nothing worse than seeing your valuables being chucked around.Alongside this, double-check that the hire fee comes with insurance, this is a must for your package.�Finally, whichever option you choose, make sure to leave time for any bookings, then, just sit back and enjoy your new beginnings.�

bus hire how to make it a little bit easier for you

Searching for a bus hire can be time-consuming, especially if you always end up with the wrong one: a company that could not accommodate your request or one that doesn�t meet your standards. Drivers of the bus hire, moreover, are qualified to provide excellent transport and customer service to all their clients.

reasons to hire a professional roofer

If you are not sure whether to attempt roof repairs on your own or hire a roofer, consider the pros of the latter choice. You may find that it is worth your money to hire someone.

car hire malaga

Offering car hire services for Malaga Spain. All inclusive holiday packages including golf tee times, car hire and hotel bookings.Malagain Spain is one of the most popular tourist destinations of the Costa del Sol in southern Spain. Malaga is the gateway to exciting costal resorts and cities like Marbella and Torremolinos along the Costa del Sol. The whole region enjoys a very pleasant climate all year round and has some of the best and most exciting tourist spots in the world. There is simply so much to see and visit here that a car is a must have so that you can enjoy the region in your own time in complete freedom. You can drive away in a hired car right from the airport as almost every car hire company has its desk at the Malaga airport. A car hire in Malaga affords you the best way to get around and get to know this fascinating city. �Malaga has it all- wonderful beaches, rich culture and history, magnificent monuments and Malaga is blessed with a wonderful Mediterranean atmosphere where you can spend the holiday relaxing away in its friendly and laid back lifestyle. With its amazing night life, restaurants, and bars, Malaga has always been the forerunners in the list of attractions for the visitors of Spain. And the towns and villages situated around Malaga make for nice day trips with your hired car. Soak in the beautiful countryside of Malaga surrounded with mountains and olive plantations dotted with the typical Andalucian white villages. Malaga is best enjoyed with a car at your disposal so that you don�t have to depend on local transportation. �Explore this fantastic city with your own time table and your own exclusive itinerary with easy and affordable car hire. �Here are a few things you should remember when you hire a car in Malaga.:�Almost all the companies offer car hire services from the airport arrivals. The services are prompt and include most basic services like �meet and greet� at the airport. Book your car online before you arrive, however. The summer months in Malaga are particularly busy and you don�t want to arrive at the airport without a car!! Reserving your car online before ensures that a car of your preference and make is waiting for you at the airport before you arrive. It also ensures that you get the best deal in terms of cost efficiency and personalised facilities. �It will well be advisable to do some research while you reserve a car. Almost all the companies on the internet advertise cheap car hire, but watch out for hidden costs or extra charges. Go for companies which have all their services and corresponding charges clearly spelled out on the website. Your car hire should cover breakdown assistance and insurance cover at no extra charges... Some companies have extra charges for an additional driver.�How long will you be hiring the car for? Some companies offer a better deal on weekly prices than a 4-5 day car hire. Be sure to ask for discounts if hiring for more than a week�s time. If you're booking online, read the restrictions carefully. �Always be sure to check out your selection of bargains before making any reservations. Make sure you understand the terms & conditions of your reservation. Is there a penalty for no-shows? Is there a fee for additional drivers and must their names be listed in the contract? Age limit of the second driver (For liability reasons, this is important.) If pertinent, ask about any restrictions on interstate travel. For your own protection in case of breakdown, be sure the company has offices in all the states/places on your travel itinerary. For one-way rentals, ask about drop-off charges. They can be very high. Always get a confirmation number. For airport rentals, be sure to give the customer service representative your flight number and scheduled arrival time. This will help protect your reservation if the flight is delayed. �Save by booking early as the prices are low during off-season. Also early reservation will give you the freedom to choose from many available cars. If you wait on until the season picks up, your options start getting very limited. �If you are traveling with children, book a child seat in advance as they are charged extra and can be in short supply during peak season. There is a range of cars that companies offer. Reserving early and online helps you in deciding on a car as all the car models and their rates are on display on company websites.For further information� log on tohttp://carhire-malaga-spain.com OR email us links@carhire-malaga-spain.com Key words: malaga car hire, car hire malaga, car hire malaga airport, cheap car hire malaga,car hire malaga spaincar hire malaga airport spain, car hire from malaga airport,budget car hire malaga, malaga car hire rental, malaga car hire company, malaga car rental, car hire spain

the making of the beethoven monument

Bonn, Germany, Beethoven's birthplace is the home of The Beethoven Monument.� This large bronze statue of Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 - 1826) is the very first statue of a composer in Germany.� Prior to the erecting of The Beethoven Monument, it had not been part of the� German or Austrian culture to put up statues of cultural figures.� It was unveiled on� August 12, 1845, honoring the 75th anniversary of the composer's birth. German�artist, Ernst Julius H�hnel, is credited with the sculpting of The Beethoven� MonumentBonn, Germany, Beethoven's birthplace is the home of The Beethoven Monument.� This large bronze statue of Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 - 1826) is the very first statue of a composer in Germany.� Prior to the erecting of The Beethoven Monument, it had not been part of the� German or Austrian culture to put up statues of cultural figures.� It was unveiled on� August 12, 1845, honoring the 75th anniversary of the composer's birth. German�artist, Ernst Julius H�hnel, is credited with the sculpting of The Beethoven� MonumentIn 1828 Germany's first musicology professor, Carol Heinrich Breidenstein, initiated the idea to create a monument honoring Ludwig van Beethoven.� Breidenstein's�idea began to take life when the "Bonn Association for The Beethoven Monument"��committee was formed in December of 1835.� At that time, committee head, August Willhelm Schlegel (famous translator of Shakespeare) issued an official�call for a permanent memorial to Ludwig van Beethoven.� Schlegel approached all the main musical publications in Germany, England and France for financial contributions.� Less than enthusiastic support came forth, and the life of the project was at risk.Alas came Franz Liszt, famous Hungarian composer/pianist.� In 1839 Liszt saw that the project was about to fail due to lack of financial backing.� He offered a large sum of his own money, and began advocating for the cause.� With his personal efforts, the much-needed funds were raised through his concerts and recitals.� The proceeds went towards the construction fund. On May 12, 1845, three months before the long-awaited�unveiling of The Beethoven Monument, the committee head died.� Schlegel's place as head of the Bonn Association for The Beethoven Monument was filled by musicology professor, Carl Heinrich Breidenstein.� This position for Breidenstein seemed fitting since he was the instigator of the idea to create the monument.A grand three day Beethoven festival was planned for the official unveiling of The Beethoven Monument.� Approximately 3,000 attendees were expected, and the committee planners realized that there was not a suitable venue for the event.� Again, Franz Liszt stepped forward and provided the finances to construct a building for the event.� The committee quickly hired an architect and builders to construct Beethoven Hall.� They had less than two weeks to begin and�finish Beethoven Hall.The festival began on Sunday, August 10, 1845.� On the third day of the event, the monument was officially unveiled.� The grand occasion was attended by King Frederick William IV of Prussia and his consort, Queen Victoria, and Prince Albert.� Many famous singers, composers, and conductors were in attendance as well.� Sealed inside the monument commemorating the event�is a parchment signed by the visiting dignitaries.

use car hire cardiff airport for instant transportation

Read this article to find out interesting information about Cardiff Airport. It also provides some facts about car hire Cardiff Airport. Car hire Cardiff is the best way to start your trip.Cardiff Airport is situated 19 km west of the city centre. That makes it very accessible with a car hire Cardiff Airport. It is an international airport and a hub for a lot of destinations throughout the UK. The airport receives around two million passengers each year and is a nice place to pick up a car hire some of its most popular domestic service within UK is to Edinburgh, while its international flights are to Spain, Ireland and the Netherlands. There are several other transatlantic charter flights to the USA and the Caribbean. The best way to transport yourself once you have arrived is by a car hire Cardiff Airport. There are many quality companies that are ready to give you the mobility you always wanted. Visitors can avail a wide array of facilities that would be expected in such a nice airport. There are ample opportunities to exchange currency and many phone services available. The baggage reclaim hall meant for inbound passengers provides passengers with any assistance if there is a problem. Visitors wanting of doing duty free shopping can do it from the Nuance Tax and Duty Free store which has great deals on fragrances, alcohol, cosmetics, candy, clothing and electronic items. You can also see WH Smith stores that are located before going through security and in the departure lounge. As far as eating out is concerned at the airport there is Burger King offers the selection of breakfast meals and main meals and also Caf� Ritazza is located in the departures lounge.The city has got many tempting sights which can be easily visited by a car hire Cardiff Airport. Drive towards Cardiff Bay which is home to a large freshwater lake. Visitors can enjoy sailing and water sports during the summer and a relaxing atmosphere any time of year. There is also a stylish five-star St David�s Hotel and Spa along with Mermaid Quay, where visitors can find Italian to Turkish cuisine. Drive with car hire Cardiff Airport to see Cardiff Bay Visitor Centre �The Tube�, which displays exhibitions on the history and development of Cardiff Bay. Stroll around the 2000 year old Cardiff Castle which has picturesque castle gardens. Why not visit the Castell Coch or Red Castle with Cardiff car hire and enjoy the by-product of a vibrant Victorian imagination. It is a fact that the middle Ages enthralled the Victorians as much as the Victorians fascinate us today.

how reserve self catering tinos greece 664192

For many people the ideal getaway is a vacation on a hot sunny island and Tinos in the Aegean Sea is a great choice. This delightful Greek island has many interesting things for holidaymakers to see and do. Here visitors will find numerous different places to stay including self catering accommodation, villas, apartments, B&Bs and campsites.One of the largest of the Cyclades group of Greek Islands, holiday rental accommodation in Tinos is also one of the most naturally beautiful, attracting many lovers of nature from across the world to its breathtaking mountain landscapes and unspoilt coastal environments. An important destination for pilgrims travelling from all areas of Greece, apartment and villa rentals in Tinos also prove a popular base for those hoping to spend a peaceful experience in what is thought to be the most important place of religious worship in the country, although you'll only need to wander through the countryside that surrounds your holiday accommodation in Tinos to discover a sense of tranquility that is perfect for relaxation, reflection and contemplation. While many people simply love the laid-back attitudes that exists on any Greek Island, villa and apartment rentals in Tinos would suit those wanting to swop a hectic urban routine for a small slice of life in the real Greece, particularly when there are enough traditional rural towns and villages scattered across Tinos for you to enjoy a big helping of this island's fascinating cultural heritage without having to travel far from your holiday accommodation in Tinos - that is if you can bear to tear yourself away from the nearest sun-drenched beach to start with!Tinos has some beautiful sandy beaches making them ideal destinations for sunbathing. The waters of the Aegean Sea are wonderfully blue and perfectly safe for adults and children to swim in. Sea fishing is popular in the summer season with boats available to charter from several coastal villages. Many watersports are offered here too including scuba diving, waterskiing, sailing and windsurfing. Tourists can also have fun taking a ride on a banana boat or take a boat trip around the island. Holidaymakers will find some interesting hiking trails on the island taking them through pretty villages and green landscape. Some paths climb to high spots offering wonderful views. There are a number of Greek taverns, bars, cafes and restaurants in Tinos, which serve mainly traditional Greek fare and plenty of fish dishes. Self catering holidaymakers will be able to purchase food and beverages from some village shops and markets. Tourists can buy many different gifts and souvenirs.Summers in Chios are warm and dry with the average high temperature in July and August about 28 degrees centigrade, but even June and September see an average high of 26 centigrade. There is hardly any rain between June and September. December and January can see an average of 12 rainy days each, but the temperatures in the winter rarely drop into single figures.The nearest airport is located on the island of Mykonos, from where holidaymakers can take a 40 minute ferry ride to Tinos. Mykonos Island National Airport (JMK) has flights to and from Athens all year round as well as seasonal flights from Amsterdam (AMS), Brussels (BRU), Cologne/Bonn (CGN), London-Gatwick (LGW), Paris-Orly (ORY), Rome-Fiumicino (FCO), Vienna (VIE) and Zurich (ZRH). On arrival at Tinos visitors can hire a car or moped from one of the rental firms located in Tinos Town.Lupain Holiday Rentals for the best self catering Tinos holidays. Browse our website to see the full range of Tinos holiday rentals.

307883 buying a car

Can I buy a new or old car that i would be using significantly for driving for dollars, or tenant related issues and claim depreciation.Is it required that the car needs to be on your LLC or can it be on your personal name to help with not having another insurance policy?

2013 10 25 how to hire a painter

So if you'll notice, I didn't title this blog "How to Hire a Good Painter". It's easy to hire a painter, it takes a bit more diligence to find a solid one. It will be this attention to detail and questioning, though, that will land you with an excellent tradesman, or a hobbyist hack. This post is going to teach you how to hire a painter – a great one. Create an account today to get BiggerPocket's best blog articles delivered to your inboxIf you’re wholesaling, you’re typically spared the agony of vetting contractors, supervising work, and dealing with performance. If you’re rehabbing, renting, or selling properties, though, painting it typically always included on the list of “must do’s” to prime your investment.So why is it difficult to acquire a honest, skilled and fairly-priced painter? The answer is, it shouldn’t be, but I’m sure we all have nightmare stories of When Painting Goes Wrong.The mirror should not be your top answer. Listen, these bony arms have seen their fair share of frog tape, cutting in, and rolling until I feel like I can roll no more. Who am I to not dig into some labor work from time to time to save money, after all? I’m a business owner, that’s who. And as adequate as I feel my painting might be, I can bet you my work is elementary compared to a proficient veteran. Let alone the hours, frustration, and disdain I feel after having to re-paint a room because the previous owners decided that 3 different shades of the same color that look the same in different lighting was a good idea (WHO does that?!)A good source is your local supply stores. As in, the actual paint supply stores, ie, Sherwin Williams, Dunn Edwards, etc. Ask the friendly sales staff if they have a couple people they recommend in that area. And, ask them why. Why do you recommend ABC painting and have you had other customers come back later and speak of their good work?You can also reach out through your local REIA to see if there are go-to painters that other investors in your area like to use. It’s also a good way to ask for references, as they should be willing and able to provide you with names and numbers of current or past clients, whom are also investors.If all else fails, check Craigslist and AngiesList. Professionals still use these sites to advertise and I often find solid companies that are simply using a high-traffic but less expensive way to get and keep their name out there. You may have to research their company a bit more, look up licensing details, and ask for references, but there are plenty of good contractors out there that are looking for work via the web.With my experience working in property management under the principals, I got a lot of exposure to working with general contractors and subs. One of the rules I was taught consistently was to always get 3-4 bids, no matter what. (Eventually you will find a few go-to people, but even their pricing/materials/quality of work may change, so it’s always good to continue to get other bids).It allows you to get an idea of who sounds professional, who returns your calls in a timely manner, how they bid the job, when they can start, if they are licensed, among other things. Always give yourself options. On the licensing note, I typically do not care if they are licensed or not. I’ve found numerous tradesmen that work under someone elses license, or work as a painter/electrician/etc for a company during the day, and side line the same work at half price in their own hours. Just get the true story and go with what works best for you. But if you do hire someone that is un-licensed/bonded/insured, just know you may have less recourse if the deal goes sideways and/or more exposure if someone gets hurt.Once they visit you at the property, you can also see how they behave, how they will approach the job in terms of organization, prep, and delivery. If in doubt, ask. Get a bid in writing with specifics, and determine whether their pricing includes paint, or if you’re supplying it.At this point you should have enough information and feel for the prospects to choose someone who you feel is proficient, fair, and drug and drama free!Never pay someone for the full job upfront. If they need a small stipend if you have a larger job to buy materials, so be it. But visit them on the job once they start to check their prep work, lines, and quality of work. You should have a clean job site that shows they have taken the time to prep the house, fixtures, trim, etc and shows clean lines and even paint. Any drinking/smoking/family members hanging around should not be tolerated. This is your business, so make sure it’s treated like one. If things aren’t being done correctly, make sure you have communicated exactly what needs to be done and get it in writing so there are no assumptions or memorization. If the job is done shoddily or there is monkey business going on, it’s time to move on to painter #2.Painting a house is one of the most dramatic and cost effective ways to improve the look and resale value of a home. Skip the DIY mentality and learn to hire and work with an experienced painter. The process of finding a good one, utilizing them, and seeing their handywork is that much more rewarding.What about your experience readers? What questions or system do you use to help you find a good painter? Have a painting horror story, please share! Photo Credit: erix!

21542 selling a car

OK, so we're used to selling real estate, but how about a car? I have a 2002 Lexus I've been trying to sell for a month without success. Never had this much problem selling a car before. Its priced under blue book. I've had it on Craigs list and in the Denver papers. I've had some calls, but no takers. Is the economy that bad?

185521 new member overland park ks

Hello,I am from Overland Park Kansas and I've been checking out Bigger Pockets the last week or two - listen to various pod casts and exploring the site. I learned of Bigger Pockets through other BP members at the local REIA meeting. I am currently a designer at a local residential architecture with over 25 years experience in all types of residential project. My REI goal is to create a portfolio of rental properties through"buy & hold" and to do a few "fix and flips" along the way. Looking forward to meeting and learning from new and seasoned BP members

147635 renting recreational property

Can anyone tell me a few do's and dont's of renting recreational property? I have plenty of experience with residential rental units, and I own a couple recreational properties in Oklahoma, Texas and Florida that I am considering doing some kind of seasonal leasing until I retire. Any information provided will be appreciated. 

814493 memphis bank contacts

I have a client looking to refinance 3 rental properties he owns free and clear in Memphis TN.  Anyone have any contacts for banks funding blanket loans on smaller portfolios?  He intends to use the funds to keep growing his rental portfolio.  Thanks

2013 07 24 when to hire a property manager

When I think of Property Management, I think back to when I first started investing in real estate. It was 1989 and I was working full-time for a painting contractor, selling real estate on the side as a newly licensed agent, and to be quite honest, I don't think I felt like I could afford to pay a property manager. You see I was trying to save every nickel I could to put it towards the next property I wanted to buy. At that time, a good property manager made more money than me and I don't recall having a lot of money in reserves either, although I did have access to emergency money through credit. So what did I do? At the time, not much. In fact, I just kept plodding along for the next couple of years until I started to realize being a property manager just didn't make sense anymore.Create an account today to get BiggerPocket's best blog articles delivered to your inboxFor some folks, especially those who have a good W-2 income or a decent paying job, a good property manager can make sense right out of the gate. Although I did my own management for several years before actually becoming a professional property manager at RE/MAX, I felt I had an edge at property management since my college degree was in management, I was a real estate agent, and I had taken many courses in property management on my way to studying for my broker's license. After training and years of being a property manager it became more apparent when and why people would hire someone to manage their properties.Related: 10 Ways to Help Out Your Property Management CompanyFor me, it was when the time it took and the money I saved doing everything myself no longer made sense.  The fact of the matter is; a residential property manager where my units were located was typically a $15 to $20/hour job. Now – even though I knew that, it took me so long to hire one because I was a property manager at RE/MAX (making 100% commission), working in the same exact area as all of my personal rental properties. So it wasn’t much of a struggle for me to handle my own properties…until the market crashed. Once that happened, the RE/MAX I worked for closed and the next brokerage firm I went to didn’t have a property management department for me to work at. Then it all became a hassle, especially when I wanted to focus on other parts of the industry (i.e. notes).Some other reasons you may be looking into a property manager could include things like:Also, this article wouldn’t be complete without a list of advantages of a good property manager (*note, I said GOOD property manager). These could include:And the MOST important thing was freedom and more time. That, I’ve come to realize is priceless.Now that’s the good news if you get the right management company, but the bad news is if you don’t. So, what are some things to look for:For example, the property manager I have that handles the majority of my properties has been in business over 25 years, manages well over 1000 units in my particular county, has a very competent staff and systems in place, and the broker owner is a district justice to boot. In fact, when you call in to their answering service you’ll hear things like, press #4 for no heat, press #5 for plumbing issues, so that gives you an idea how organized and automated they are. Plus I get detailed monthly statements from them, and all my contractors bill my property manager so I never have to stop to write a check!Related: To Manage or Not to Manage: 5 Important Considerations To Ask YourselfAnd finally, as a previous property manager, do I have any suggestions for you as an owner to make your experience better with your management company?  Of course!  You still have to manage these guys.  But thinking back to my best clients, the guys who were the easiest to work with were the folks who listened, followed our advice, were reasonable, and above all took care of their properties, especially when we asked them to. The last one is key, if you don’t take care of your property or you aren’t attentive, then it doesn’t matter who your property manager is.Looking back today hiring a property manager was one of the wisest things I’ve ever done. It enabled me the free time to start a new and even more successful business than I had ever had before. The skills I had learned from being a manager has helped tremendously in finding and managing good folks to manage for me, and hopefully reading this will help you on your journey to finding a good property manager.So, now the question for you is when will you be taking things to the next level and hiring your property management company?  (Unless you own a property management company there’s really no excuse!)  As I get older, I know my family appreciates the fact that I’ve taken care of this chore for them in advance.If you don’t have one yet when do you think your goal is to get one?Leave me a comment below and let’s talk!Photo: Victor1558

6399 hire a rehab manager

Does anyone hire a manager to cordinate a rehab project? What would you think a manager like this would cost? I have a property manager that helps with my properties if they need rehabbed in return she manages my properties. would you think this manager would have to be on the job site the whole time the job is in progress, or should he/she just stop in once a day to get an idea of what is going on and making sure everything is up to standards and tell you whats going on day to day. Maybe even offer the manager a small commision if he can sell the house before the house is completed. any one?

513937 car note vs not having a car note

261422 developing a car wash

Hi everyone i want to develop a car wash along a busy 6 lane state highway that is used by commuters to get to work daily. It would be a full service tunnel wash with vacume stations, vending, etc. We could get the land for around $400k for a acre but theres many other opurtunities to get a spot for cheaper because theres many shut down buildings that need to be demolished that we could purchsase off market. Now lets say we could build the car wash for 600k plus the land of lets say 200-400k. Where do i get financing for that? Would crowdfunding apply here? Also does anyone know of any car wash franchises? Are there any experienced car wash opertators that could provide some insight please?

RELEVANT KEYWORDS

The list of keywords we used to create this document :

car rental Bonn,hire a car Bonn

RECOMMENDED RESOURCES

The list of resources and links we recommend you visit :

https://maps.google.com/?cid=1374851492218633313 link

https://goo.gl/maps/UCGdo4Js82RuRMFG9 link

https://goo.gl/maps/yACySSFDKUX1f7vz6 link

https://goo.gl/maps/eCw3i3LeYQ5JNRvQ9 link

https://goo.gl/maps/FNTRvqqoxTtFDy218 link

https://goo.gl/maps/EyupweuJM1xLNF3V6 link

https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=1Wa0vVJNb2UCD1A3g1b1Y_4FFRAT5HYsj&usp=sharing link

https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=1TYNx6T86cSb2swXtvuCB-yU4Pltf4nhc&usp=sharing link

https://twitter.com/MiixSephora/status/1298276361333809154 link

https://twitter.com/JeromeCasey1/status/1298276585997565954 link

CTA or Logo image

car rental Bonn photo

car rental Bonn photo

hire a car Bonn photo

hire a car Bonn photo

car rental Bonn document

Rent a Car Bonn folder top

Rent a Car Bonn Articles folder articles

Rent a Car Bonn Photos folder photos

Rent a Car Bonn PDFs folder pdfs

car rental Bonn photo

car rental Bonn photo

hire a car Bonn photo

hire a car Bonn photo

Rent a Car Bonn photo

Rent a Car Bonn photo

Rent a Car Bonn spreadsheet

Rent a Car Bonn form

Rent a Car Bonn drawing

Rent a Car Bonn presentation

CTA or Logo image

CTA or Logo - image link image link

car rental Bonn document

hire a car Bonn document

Rent a Car Bonn document

Rent a Car Bonn PDF

hire a car Bonn PDF

car rental Bonn PDF

Rent a Car Bonn calendar

Rent a Car Bonn Microsoft folder Microsoft Files

car rental Bonn MS DocX

hire a car Bonn MS DocX

Rent a Car Bonn MS DocX

Rent a Car Bonn video

Rent a Car Bonn video

Rent a Car Bonn video

Rent a Car Bonn video

CONTACT US

You can reach us at :

Rent a Car 24

Dubliner Str. 14-30, 53117 Bonn, Germany

http://rentacar24.xyz/

Website

Visit our Website here :

https://maps.google.com/?cid=1374851492218633313

Images/Photos