Construction / subject

Explanation

(PL2= Politeness Level 2 = Plain, familiar. For use with close friends.

PL3= Politeness Level 3 = Ordinary polite

PL4= Politeness Level 4= Very polite. For use with social superiors.)

“A [thing] that is like another [thing]”:

1. in a befitting sense: a man-like person --> a masculine man;

2. in a manner characteristic/befitting of X --> like a professional --> befitting a professional.

1. X + らしい こと + the person or manner indicated and X is the quality

2. X + らしく

Abrupt negative command (generally following a verb)

Mostly masculine: a sharp んじゃない

Mostly feminine: a sharp んじゃありません

Absolute time when something will occur (marker)

に

“[The] action has been left deliberately undone.”

 -ないでいる or -ないでいます

Adjective, ば-form (i.e. conditional or “If~, Then~” form).

Change -い into -ければ

Adjective,ば-form

Change the ending -い into -ければ

Adjective, な-adjective or adjectival noun

A noun used as an adjective by adding な to it.

Adjective, negative

PL2: Add -ない to the く-form

PL3:

A. Use ありません instead of the ending -ない;

B. Add です to the adjective with a ない ending.

Adjective, past tense

PL2: final -い --> -かった

PL3:  final -い --> -かった + です

Adjective, て-form

Add -て to the -く form (that is the adverb made from the adjective)

Adjective, turn into adverb

By changing final -い to -く

Adjective, turn into noun

Change the final -い into -さ or sometimes -み.

Adjective past form

PL2: final -い à -かった

PL3:  final -い à -かった + です

"Almost did the action"

-そうに plus ある.

"Although it is so"

PL2: だけど, だが

PL3: だけど,ですけど

"And moreover" or "and besides that" (when connecting two sentences)

し

"...and that's how this all came about / that's the story”

というわけ

“[My] apologies” (for anything you might have done wrong or that might have caused offense)

失礼しました, しつれいしました

Note that しつれい tends to be pronounced as "shtray", so kind of like a drunk person asking for an ashtray.

"Apparently / it seems / it looks like /I hear it is [as described]"

らしい when it follows an adjective (including its plain past, negative and negative-past forms and the -ない/-たい forms of verbs which all act like adjectives)

"Apparently ~" or "It seems/I hear/they say/I'm told/I understand that~"

そうだ/ですfollows a complete PL2 verb (and no source is mentioned)

Appearance (something seems or appears a certain way)

Add みたいだ/ですto the end of a PL2 sentence (no connection with みる).

Appearance (to have a certain quality)

Plain (past) form of an adjective + みたいだ/です (no connection to みる)

"Appears not to be/seems unlikely to be [the described quality]"

Adjective minus い plus くなさそう+だ/です/に/な

"[Noun] appears not to exist / seems unlikely to exist"

Noun + じゃなさそうだ/です/に/な

"Appears to be / seems like to be" (formal)

ようだ

"As for what is called~"

というのはorって

Asking about someone’s thoughts (if they are thinking something specific)

See “… did you think?”

“At last, finally”

とうとう

"At least that much" when following a quantity

は

“At least until / at least as much as the stated amount”

までは

“Be able to/can”

Group 1 Verb:

PL2: Final syllable shifts to the one ending in -e in the same row plus -る

PL3:  Final syllable shifts to the one ending in -e in the same row plus -ます

Group 2 Verb:

PL2: - られる

PL3: - られます

“Be able to/can” form of 来る,くる

PL2: こられる

PL3: こらぇます

“Be able to/can” form of する

できる/できます

“Be able to/can” form of する when it appears as をする

ができる

“Be able to/can” without conjugating the verb

Add the phrase ことができる/できます to the verb.

"Be doing/continue doing [the action]"

-ていろ (often shortened to -てろ)

"Be silent" (from parent to child, or social superior to inferior)

だまりなさい

“Be unable to / can’t”

Replace the -る of the "can/be able to" form with:

 -ない (PL2), or

-ません (PL3).

“Because of/owing to [the described action]"

ため following past verb-type modifier.

“Because/so”(neutral, other than noun-type sentences) marking what preceded it as the cause (so the exact opposite from English)

から

“Because/so”(neutral, PL2 noun-type sentences) marking what preceded it as the cause (so the exact opposite from English)

だから

“Because/so”(neutral, PL3 noun-type sentences) marking what preceded it as the cause (so the exact opposite from English)

ですから

“Because / so” (more formal, no guesses or uncertainty)

ので, often shortened to んで (at the beginning of a sentence)

"Begin to do the action"

-てくる (in combination with action verbs)

“[Someone] believes [the action] did occur/has occurred"

Past verb(-type modifier) + はずだ/です. (E.g. the “table-was-reserved belief”, where “reserved” is the past-verb that modifies “belief”

In kanji Japanese: 席を予約したはず.

In kana Japanese: せきをよやくしたはず. The underlined part means “reserved”.)

But/and

をwhen it follows a verb, adjective or noun + だ/ですphrase

But/and (formal)

が

But/and (more informal)or semi-colon (;)

けど

“But/and how do you respond to that?”(by way of an afterthought)

けど or が at the end of a sentence (instead of earlier).

Can/be able to

Group 1 Verbs:  Change the final syllable of the verb into the one ending in -e in the same kana row and add -る (PL2) or -ます(PL3).

Group 2 Verbs:  PL2 - replace the final -る with -られる (often shortened to れる)

PL3 -  replace the final -る with -られます(often shortened to れます)

Cannot/be unable to

All verbs:  replace -る with -ない (PL2) or -ません (PL3)

Cannot/be unable to (without conjugating a verb)

ことはできない, literally "as for the action of [so-and-so], I cannot do it".

Causative (marker for the one performing the action)

に

Causative can / be able to form

PL2: change the final -る to -られる

PL3: change the final -る to -られます

Causative cannot / be unable form

PL2: final -る (of the PL2 "can/be able to" variant of the causative verb) becomes -ない/-なかった

PL3: final -る (of the PL2 "can/be able to" variant of the causative verb) becomes -ません/-ませんでした

Causative form, definition

The form that indicates the (intended) result of the action. E.g. "will make", "will deliver" in the sense that the speaker will cause this to happen (instead of doing it themselves).

(Note that Japanese has no future tense, so that the verb form meant here should not be mistaken for it.)

Causative form (“make happen”)

Group 1:

PL2: change the final -u to -a and add せる

PL3: change the final -u to -a and add せます

Group 2:

PL2: Final -る becomes -させる.

PL3: Final -るbecomes -させます

Causative form of “to come”, 来る, くる

PL2: こさせる

PL3: こさせます

Causative form of “to do”, する

PL2: させる

PL3: させます

Causative negative form

  PL3: -させません

Causative passive form

PL2: final -る becomes -られる

PL3:  final -る becomes -られます

Causative past form

PL2: final -る becomes -た

PL3: final -る becomes -ました

Causative want to form

Change final -る into -たい

Cause (marker that links two sentences and marks the first as the cause). Also see “if/when”.

から

Certainly

確かに, たしかに

"[I'll] choose / [I'll] make my choice"

~にする

Colloquial contraction of -でしまう (see -てしまう for meaning)

-じゃう

Colloquial contraction of -でしまった

-じゃった

Colloquial contraction of -なければ

(negative conditionality verb-ending)

-なきゃ

Colloquial contraction of -なくて (negative verb ending)

-なかちゃ

Colloquial  contraction of -なさい (for positive commands)

-な

Colloquial  contraction of -ていかない

-てかない

Colloquial contraction of -ていく

-てく

Colloquial  contraction of -ていった

-てった

Colloquial  contraction of -ておく(“do in advance”)

-とく

Colloquial contraction of -てしまう

(has various meanings: “completely/without delay”, regret/undesirability, surprise, impulsive/involuntary action)

-ちゃう

Colloquial contraction of -てしまった (past form of -てしまう)

-ちゃった

“Come” (command from parent to child or from authority figures to those under their direction)

きなさい

Command

Dictionary form + a sharp んだ or んです.

Command (abrupt)

Group 1 Verbs: Final -u becomes -e (shift in kana row)

Group 2 Verbs: Final -る becomes ろ.

Command (abrupt, classical/literary)

Group 2 Verbs: Final -る becomes -よ.

Command (abrupt, softened)

Add よ

Command (gentle, feminine)

のよ

Command (negative)

な, directly following the dictionary form of the verb.

Command (negative, abrupt)

A sharp んじゃない (mostly masculine)

A sharp んじゃありません (mostly feminine)

Command (negative, gentle)

-ないで form (never the -て form!) of a verb, followed by ください for extra politeness.

Command (negative, gentle, feminine)

-ないのよ

Command (parent to child or social superior to inferior)

By adding -なさい to the pre-ますstem of a verb. (E.g. "become silent" だまります --> "be silent" だまりなさい)

For する --> しなさい ("don't do")

For くる --> きなさい ("don't come")

Command (positive, gentle)

-て form plus くれ

Command (positive, strong)

Add -たまえ to the pre-ますstem of a verb.

Command-form of 来る, くる

こい

Command-form of する

しろ

Comparison (marker)

と

Conditionality

See “if/when”

Confirmation of general existence or specific availability

PL2: ある

PL3: あります

Consequently

依 /ｲ､ｴ

Content/idea/thought (marker of preceding word that “colours” the action of the verb that follows)

も

Could/was able to

PL2: Change the can-form’s -る into た

PL3: Change the can-form’sる into ました

Could (request)

PL2: -でくれぅ

PL3: -でくれます

"Could I/might I/might I not ask you to [do the action]?"

-てもらえませんか

-ていただけませんか.

(I.e. the "could/would/won't you?" forms)

"Could it be that...?" (colloquial)

かい

"Could it be that...?" (informal, masculine), also see “Guess”

かな

“Could/would/won’t you please [do the action]?”(when asked of a social superior, someone outside one’s circle or someone else deserving of special politeness)

PL3 only (because of extreme politeness):

-てもらえませんか

-ていただけませんか.

"Could you / would you please [do the action]"

PL2: -てくれる

PL3: -てくれます

“Could you / would you please [do the action]?” (asked of a social superior)

-てくださる/くださいます

Definitive statement of what you're supposed or required to do.

-ばform of a verb + いい

Describing (a feeling that was caused by something)

Replace the -い of the word describing the feeling with  -がる and mark the cause with を.

Describing (sound or something verbal)

Quote them with という or っていう

Desire (for an action to be performed)

て-form of the verb plus ほしい. The marker に shows which person is desired to perform the action. No は-が construction is otherwise needed, so that the direct object is marked with を. When the person you want to perform the action is a social superior, the form -ていただく/いただきますshould be used.

Desire (for a thing)

Use end-phrase が欲しい, がほしい.

Desire (for an action to be performed)

Use the て-form of the verb plus ほしい.

(The marker に shows which person is desired to perform the action. No は-が construction is otherwise needed, so that the direct object is marked with を.)

When the person you want to perform the action is a social superior, the form -ていただく/いただきますshould be used.

Desire (for doing an action yourself)

-たい.

Destination or target of a movement, when also the direct object (marker)

に

“[Someone] did not want [an action]"

PL2: -たがらなかった (action described by preceding verb-stem)

PL3: -たがりませんでした

“[Third party]did not want [something].”

PL2: -がらなかった

“[Someone} did not want to do.”

PL2: -たくなかった

PL3: -たくなかったです or -たくありませんでした

“…, did you think?”

PL2: とおもった(か)

PL3: とおもいましたか

Direction (marker)

へ (pronounced as “e” in this case!)

Disappointment

(な)のに (at the end of a sentence)

“Do” (command from parent to child or from authority figures to those under their direction)

しなさい

"Do [something] before coming / on the way"

-て form plus くる

"Do [something] before going / on the way"

-ていく

"Do for future use/need/reference"

-ておく

"Do [something] for me/someone near me"

1. “Giver” is equal of or inferior to “asker”:  -てもらう/もらいます

2. “Giver” is social superior to (or outside circle of) “asker”: -ていただく/いただきます

"Do [something] for me or someone near me" (person performing the action is more distant)

-て form of the verb describing the action plus くれる/くれま

"Do for me/someone near me" without using -くれる ("giver" is of equal or inferior social status compared to the "asker").

-てもらう/もらいます

"Do for me/someone near me" without using -くれる ("giver" is of superior social status compared to or outside the social circle of the "asker").

-ていただく/いただきます

"Do the action and leave the result in place"

-ておく

"Do the action like X (noun) / in an X-like (noun) manner."

Sentence or phrase + (の)ように which then modifies a verb.

"Do the action like X / in an X-like manner"

Verb + みたいに

"Do to you/someone" (in a malicious sense)

-て+やる

"Do ~ with the described appearance/in the described manner" or "do ~ as if described"

Adjective minus -い plus -そうに (instead of -そうだ/です)

Exception: the verb なる (to become) after -そうに means "almost did the action"

"Do Y so that X occurs/doesn't occur/can occur/etc."

X ように Y

(Note the reversal of X and Y in the translation!)

“…, do you think?”

PL2: とおもう(か)

PL3: とおもいますか

"[What kind of action] do you think you would like?"

-たいとおもいますか

“[Someone] does not want [an action]"

PL2: -たがらない (action described by verb-stem)

PL3: -たがりません

“[Someone]  does not want/desire [an item]"

PL2: [item] + ほしがらない

PL3: [item] + ほしがりません

“[Third party] does not want something.”

PL2: -がらない

“[Someone] does not want to do”

PL2: -たくない

PL3: -たくないです or -たくありません

“[Someone/someone]doesn’t / don’t / won’t”

-ません

Doing an action for someone of a lower social status.

-て+やる

“Don’t come”

来ない, こない

“Don’t do/won’t do”

しない

“Don’t you want [an item]?”

ほしくないのか

“Don’t want to let [something] happen.”

-たくない (replaces causative form’s -る)

"Done completely" or "completed without delay"

-てしまう

“Due to the lack of [X], there is [Y]”

 なくて(independent adjective) or -なくて (verb-ending).

“Either..., or…”

か (when between two nouns)

"Even if / when", "even after" and "even though” (depending on the context).

-ても

“Even though / in spite of”(when connecting two sentences)

のに

"Even though it is / notwithstanding"

なのに

"Excuse me." (PL2: used in less formal situations or when speaking from a position of rank.)

失礼する, しつれいする

Note that しつれい tends to be pronounced as "shtray", so kind of like a drunk person asking for an ashtray.

“Excuse me” (PL3: used when entering someone's office, walking in front of someone or otherwise intruding on their personal space, when taking leave of someone -especially a superior- and to say goodbye on the phone)

失礼します, しつれいします

Note that しつれい tends to be pronounced as "shtray", so kind of like a drunk person asking for an ashtray.

"[It] exists" (formal)

存在します、そんざいします

Explanation (as an afterthought or for something that is obvious from context)

から or ので at the end of a sentence

Explanation (request, informal)

Add “(な)のか?”.

Explanation (request, informal, feminine)

(な)の

Explanation (request, politely)

Add "の/んですか?" or "なん/なのですか?”

Explanatory phrase with negative verb

Negative verb +  の, んだ/です or のだ/です

Express what a third party wants, without presuming to be speaking for them

Change -たい into -たがる, or 欲しい into 欲しいがる. 

Expression of surprise

-てしまう

Extent / how far something stretches in space or time (particle)

まで

Formal version of です

でござる, でございます

Formal version of 食べる, たべる ("to eat")

いただく, いただきます

“[To] give"  (giver = someone relatively close to the speaker + recipient is someone more distant): dictionary form.

PL2: あげる

“[To] give" (giver=speaker, or someone relatively close + recipient is of lower social status, such as a pet or a child): dictionary form.

PL2: やる

“[To] give" (giver=speaker or someone relatively close + recipient is of lower social status): negative forms.

PL2: やらない

PL3: やりません

“[To] give"  (giver=speaker or someone relatively close + recipient is of lower social status): negative past forms.

PL2: やらなかった

PL3: やりませんでした

“[To] give" (giver=speaker or someone relatively close + recipient is of lower social status): past forms.

PL2: やった

PL3: やりました

“[To] give"  (giver=speaker or someone relatively close + recipient is social superior): dictionary forms.

PL2: 差し上げる, さしあげる

PL3: 差し上げます, さしあげます

“[To] give" (giver=speaker or someone relatively close + recipient is social superior): negative forms.

PL2: さしあげない

PL3: さしあげません

“[To] give" (giver=speaker or someone relatively close + recipient is social superior): past forms.

PL2: さしあげた

PL3: さしあげました

“[To] give"  (giver=speaker or someone relatively close + recipient is social superior): negative forms.

PL2: さしあげなかった

PL3: さしあげませんでした

“[To] give"  (giver/performer of action=speaker or someone close, recipient is someone more distant): dictionary form

-てあげる

“[To] give"  (level of politeness uncertain): negative forms.

PL2: あげない

PL3: あげません

“[To] give"  (level of politeness uncertain): past negative tenses.

PL2: あげなかった

PL3: あげませんでした

“[To] give" (level of politeness uncertain): past tenses.

PL2: あげた

PL3: あげました

“[To] give"  (recipient= in the same group as speaker, giver is outside this group)

PL2: くれる

PL3: くれます

(this is an exception to the rule that outsiders are treated as social superiors)

“[To] give" (recipient=speaker, giver is social equal or inferior): negative forms.

PL2: くれない

PL3: くれません

“[To] give" (recipient=speaker, giver is social equal or inferior): negative past forms.

PL2: くれなかった

PL3: くれませんでした

“[To] give"  (recipient=speaker, giver is social equal or inferior): past tenses.

PL2: くれた

PL3: くれました

“[To] give"  (recipient=speaker, giver is social inferior and more distant): dictionary forms.

PL2: くれる

PL3: くれます

“[To] give" (recipient=speaker, giver is social superior as well as more distant): dictionary forms.

PL2: くださる

PL3: くださいます

“[To] give"  (recipient=speaker, giver is social superior): negative forms.

PL2: くださらない

PL3: かださいません

“[To] give"  (recipient=speaker, giver is social superior): negative past forms.

PL2: くださらなかった

PL3: くださいませんでした

“[To] give"  recipient=speaker, giver is social superior): past tenses.

PL2: くださった

PL3: くださいました

"Go do [something]"

-てくる 

“Go on doing [something]”

-ていく

Greater/better/preferable

方が,ほうが （The word or sentence modifying 方 is the item or action that is preferable, while what follows が expresses how it is preferable)

Group 1 Verb, how to recognize

(also known as “う-verbs”)

When going from plain (PL2) to polite (PL3) form,  Group 1 Verbs see only the final -u (as part of -る) change into  -います (so not just -ます).

Group 1 Verb, plain past form when ending in -ぐ

Change -ぐ into -いだ

Group 1 Verb, plain past form when ending in -く

Change -く into -いた 

Group 1 Verb, plain past form when ending in -す

Change -すinto -した

Group 1 Verb, plain past form when ending in る, う and つ.

Change the final る, う or つ into -った.

Group 1 Verb, plain past form when ending in ぶ、む and ぬ.

Replace the final syllable with -んだ.

Group 2 Verb, how to recognize

(also known as “る-verbs”)

When going from plain (PL2) to polite (PL3) form, Group 2 Verbs see the final -る change into -ます. (The dictionary forms of Group 2 Verbs all end in -いる or -える, but not all -える verbs are Group 2 Verbs).

Group 2 Verb, plain negative form

Replace the final -る with -ない.

Group 2 Verb, plain past form

Replace the final -る with -た.

Guess (informal/feminine)

かしら

Guess (informal/masculine)

かな

Guesswork (negative)

Negative statement + だろう (PL2) or でしょう(PL3)

“[The action] has been done (by an unspecified person) and its result still exists.” E.g. “it is written that…” (sounds very formal in English)

-てある

“[The action] has been done.”

-てある

“[The action] has been left deliberately undone.”

PL2: -ないでいる

PL3: -ないでいます

“Has/had gone”

行っていた

“Has/have done the action”

-ている

"Has/have done up to now"

-てくる

"Have someone [do the action]" (without making clear who benefits)

-てもらう or -ていただく

Hearsay

そうだ/ですfollows a complete PL2 verb

Hearsay (adjective-based sentence)

Full dictionary/plain past/negative/negative-past form of the adjective or -ない/-たい form of a verb (since these act as adjectives) plus そうだ/です.

Hearsay (more or less certainly correct)

Use the らしい form (after the verb).

Hearsay (noun-type sentence)

Noun + だ/だった/じゃない/じゃなかった + そうだ/です

Note:

1. The first だ or any of its alternatives is absolutely necessary and cannot be omitted!

2. The sentence preceding そうだ/ですmust end in a PL2 form, since the overall politeness level of the sentence is determined by the choice for そうだ or そうです.

3. There is no な or に form, nor can this type of sentence directly modify nouns or verbs. 

Honorific/exalting version of  いう/いいます ("to say")

おっしゃる, おっしゃいます

Honorific/exalting verb replaces the following three verbs:

- いく/いきます ("to come");

- くる/きます("to go");

- いる/います("to exist" for people and other animate things).

いらっしゃる, いらっしゃいます

Humble verbs

Pre-ます stem (of certain verbs, not with every verb!) preceded by お and followed by する/します (or their past, negative or other form). Used to describe one's own actions to a social superior in a formal situation. Similar to "No offense, but..." in English.

Humble version of 行く, いく ("to go")

まいる, まいります

Humble version of いう ("to say")

もうす, もうします

Humble version of する

いたす, いたします

“I am thinking I might [do the action].”

PL2 “let’s” form + か + と思う (とおもう) / と思います (ともういます), i.e. “I think”

"I am told it is fine / He said it is fine" (hearsay)

いいそうだ/よいそうだ

"I am told it is interesting / she said it is interesting" (hearsay)

おもしろいそうだ

"I am told [they] will finish it / it will be finished" (hearsay)

おわるそうだ

“I did not want [an item]”

ほしくなかった

“I do not want [an item]”

ほしくない

“…is/are ~ing.”

Plain past form minus -た/-だ + ている/でいる

"I will / I shall / I think I'll [do the action we've been talking about / that is otherwise clear from context]"

~しましょう (following a verb)

“I think I want to do…”

-たいform +と思う/とおもう or とおもいます.

"I think perhaps/ maybe/ possibly/ probably~"

PL2 question ending in か + とおもう/おもいます.

 "I wonder if~?"/"Is it perhaps~?"

Sentence ending だろうか or でしょうか (as an alternative for かな/かしら).

"I wonder who/what/where/how~?"

だろうか or でしょうか  as an ending for a sentence that already contains a question word.

(see also "Who/what/where/how might~?")

“If/when”

1. -ば form of a verb;

2. particle と;

3. -だろform of a verb

4. -から form of a verb.

5. noun + では (or its contraction じゃ)

“If/when” (emphatic)

-ても, which can amount to "even if/when", "even after" and "even though", depending on the context.

“If/when” form of です

であれば

“If/when” polite form (very formal)

-ますれば (-ば form of PL3 -ますform of a verb).

“If it is not…”

じゃなければ or で(は)なければ

Impulsive/involuntary action

-てしまう

"In/on/at" (location)

の

"In order to do [the described action]"

Non-past verb-type modifier + ため

Indirect question

Embed a PL2 question plus か by following it with another verb and ending it with noun + か or noun + だか. (And do not forget that か always absorbs だ in PL2 questions).

Informal contraction of the suffix -なさい (for positive commands)

-な. This means that what comes before this suffix is crucial for the meaning:

1. The verb's pre-ます stem, in which case it is a positive command.

2. The full dictionary form, in which case it is a prohibitive/negative command.

Informal invitation or suggestion

PL2-ない form plus か

-ing form of a passive verb

-る becomes -ている

“[Someone] intends /plans to [do the described action]"

~つもりだ/です

Intent or decision

Follow PL2 "let's" with と思う, とおもう/とおもいます (litt. "I think")

Intent or decision, hesitant

PL2 “let’s” form of a verb plus か + と思う, とおもう/とおもいます (“I’m thinking I might do the action.”)

Introduce (yourself, formally)

Greeting + name + と申します (ともうします)

Introduce (yourself, very informally)

Greeting + name + といいます

Invitation (informal)  or suggestion

PL2-ない form plus か

"Is/are ~ing"

  PL3: -ています

“[The action] is done by the speaker (or someone relatively close) for someone more distant.”

-て + あげる

“[The action] is not being or has not been performed.”

-なくて

“It appears/looks to be [the stated item]”

Attach のようだ to PL2 noun-type sentences ending in だ or its past or negative forms (i.e. だった, じゃない and じゃなかった).

"It appears/seems to be (was) [the described quality]" 

Plain (past) form of an adjective + みたいだ/です (no connection to みる).

"It doesn't seem to exist"

なさそうだ/です/に/な

“It is of the described quality" -1

Adjective + みたいに

“It is of the described quality” -2

Phrase or sentence +  (の)ように, which combination then modifies an adjective.

"It is so typical of [the stated thing/person]"

Noun + らしい (only in certain contexts)

"It looks fine" (observation)

よさそうだ (note that よ is derived from the adjective いい (good) here. Kind of like “good”, “fine”, “better” and “best” are rather irregular in English.)

"It looks interesting"

おもしろそうだ

"It looks/seems like it is [that quality]"

Take the adjective’s dictionary form minus -い plus -そうだ/です.

Exception: いい/よい--> よさそうだ/です

"It looks/sounds/feels like [the action will occur]"

In other words, a conclusion or guess based on something the speaker has directly observed or experienced with their own senses. 

Pre-masu stem + -そうだ/そうです (In PL2 speech, だ is often omitted)

"[It] looks like it doesn't [do the action]", like "doesn't seem to exist / be present"

Negative verb + みたいだ/です

"It looks like [they] will finish / it will be finished" (observation)

おわりそうだ

“Let me do [an action] for you” in a more practical beneficial sense, as in “Let me show you/Let me help you with that.”

-て+あげる

Let’s (PL2, Group 1 Verbs)

Final kana shifts to one ending in -o (e.g. from す to そ) and then うis added.

Let’s (PL2, Group 2 Verbs)

-よう

Let’s form of 来る, くる

来よう、こよう

Let’s form of する and する-verbs

PL2: しよう

PL3:しましょう

"Let's do [the action we've been talking about / that is otherwise clear from context]" (PL3)

~しましょうしましょう

Let’s/I shall/I think I’ll~ (PL3, all verbs)

-ましょう (following a verb)

Location of events (marker)

で

Location where something exists (marker)

に

"Looks/seems like it is good"

よさそうだ/です

"Looks like it is [the stated item]", "appears/seems to be [the stated item]" or sometimes "is like [the stated item]"

Full PL2 noun-type question + みたいだ/です(replaces だ, but not だった, じゃない or じゃなかった).

"Looks like [someone] will drink"

のむみたい

"Looks like [someone] will eat"

たべるみたい

"Make it [into] ~"

~にする

Masculine emphasis, informal and assertive

ぞ

Masculine emphasis, rough

ぜ

Might/may possibly

Noun + かもしれない (PL2) / かもしれません(PL3)

Movement away from the speaker

-ていく

Movement toward the speaker

-てくる

Movement, where it begins or occurs (marker)

を

Must/have to

Use verb suffix -なければ and add ならない (literally “not doing the action is not good”)

Must not

1. Follow -ては or -では with いけない

2. Follow -ては or -では with ならない (has a stronger prohibitive feeling)

In both cases, -ては often gets shortened to -ちゃ and -では to -じゃ.

3. -ては/-では + だめ 

Negative adjective

PL2: Add -ない to the く-form of the adjective

PL3:

A. Add ありません to the く-form of the adjective.

B. Add です to the PL2-form.

Negative adjective, ば-form (i.e. the conditional or “If~/Then~” form).

Change -ない into -なければ (often shortened to  -なきゃ)

Negative adjective in a question

PL2: -くないか

PL3: -くありませんか or -くないですか (less refined)

Negative form of a Group 1 Verb ending in -う

-わない

Negative form of ある (“to exist” for inanimate objects)

PL2: ない

PL3: ありません

Negative form of  いる/います (“to exist” for people)

PL2: いない

Negative form of 来る, くる

PL2: 来ない、こない

Negative form of する

PL2: しない

Negative past form of 来る, くる

PL2: 来なかった、こなかった

Negative past form of する

PL2: しなかった

Negative past verb form

PL2 (all verbs): -ない à -なかった

PL3 (all verbs): -ません à ませんでした

(Sometimes -ないです and -ないでした are used as alternatives for ません and ませんでした)

Negative polite form of です

ではありません, often shortened to じゃありません

Negative polite form of する

しません

Negative polite past form of a verb

-ませんでした

Negative polite past form of です

じゃありませんでした

Negative polite past form of する

しませんでした

Negative questions

PL2: ~じゃないの, ~じゃない?

PL3: ~じゃない(です)か/~じゃありませんか?/~じゃないですか?

Negative tag question (e.g. “isn’t it”, “doesn’t it?”)

だろう/でしょう, pronounced with normal intonation.

Negative tag question (PL2)

Add じゃないの or simply じゃない, since じゃないか sounds too abrupt.

Negative verb form

PL2/Group 1: change suffix -u to -anai (unless the final syllable is う by itself, then it changes to -わない)

PL2/Group 2: change suffix -る to -ない

PL3/Both Groups: change -ます to -ません

“No matter how… (adjective + noun follow, e.g. “difficult the problem”, “handsome the man”)

どんあ～でも(here the adjective +  noun comes in between)

“Of” in the possessive sense, like “four leaf clover”

の in between two nouns

Offering food or drink (direct object marker)

に

“Only/just [the stated item]” (when following noun) or “only/just [the stated number]” (when following a number or amount)

だけ

"Or something"

でも added to an invitation begun with a “let’s” form (for polite vagueness)

Origin in either time or place or the source from which something comes

から

Passive form

Group 1 Verbs:

Change final -u into -あれる (PL2) or -あれます (PL3).

Group 2 Verbs:

Change final -るinto -られる (PL2) or -られます(PL3). Note that the passive form for Group 2 Verbs is identical to the “can/be able to” form, so context must provide further information about which is the correct meaning in a given situation.

Passive form’s past tense

As if they were Group 2 Verbs. (So final -る gets replaced with -た).

Passive forms of 来る, くる

PL2: こられる

PL3: こられます

Passive forms of する

PL2: される

PL3: されます

Passive ~ìng form

Replace the final -る with -ている

Passive negative form

Non-past: -ない/-ません

Past: -なかった/-ませんでした

“Perhaps he/she/it is..."

じゃない + かな (somewhat masculine) or かしら (feminine)

Permission (request)

-てもいい plus a question mark. This can be softened by following it with かな, かしら or でしょうか.

Permission (request, very polite)

Follow a causative verb + -てもらう/いただく with -て(も)いいですか

Person with whom an action is done (marker)

と

Place where an action occurs (marker)

で

Plain negative past form of a Group 1 verb ending in -う

-う changes to -わない instead of into -あない 

Plain past form of でない

でなかった 

Plain past form of じゃない

じゃなかった

Plain past form of 来る,くる

来た、きた

Plain past form of する

した

Plain past of a Group 1 Verb ending in -ぐ

 -いだ

Plain past of a Group 1 Verb ending in -す

-した

Plain past of a Group 1 Verb ending in -く

-いた

Plain past of a Group 1 Verb ending in -る, -う or -つ

-った

Plain past of a Group 1 Verb ending in -ぶ、-む or -ぬ

-んだ

Plain past of a Group 2 Verb

-た

“Please do the action.”

-てほしい

"Please let me..."

Group 1:

PL2: -aせる (“a” = shift to kana with “a”)

PL3: -せます

Group 2:

PL2:  -させる

PL3:  -させます

Polite negative form of です

ではありません, often shortened to じゃありません

Polite negative form (verb)

-ません. Means both “doesn’t/don’t” and “won’t”

Polite negative past (verb)

-ませんでした

Polite past form (verb)

-ました

Polite past form (する)

しました

Positive commands (from parents to children, or social superiors to inferiors)

Add -なさい to the pre-ますstem of a verb.

Pre-ます form or stem (“pre- masu form”) of a verb

Simply the part of a verb that comes before the -ます suffix in the polite (aka PL3-) form.

Probably/surely is

PL2: だろう

PL3:でしょう

Pronoun "one"

のon its own (except for a modifier preceding it).

Purpose, also in the sense of reaching an endpoint (marker)

に

Question (colloquial)

Omit か and use rising intonation.

Question (from a verb-type sentence)

Add -か and pronounce this with rising intonation.

Question (indirect)

Embed a PL2 question plus か by following it with another verb and ending it with noun + か or noun + だか. (Remember: か always absorbs だ in PL2 questions!).

Quoting

Word, phrase or complete sentence + と + a "quoting verb" like いう、よむ、きく.

Quoting (informally)

Useって or てinstead of と.

Quoting (question, directly)

Let the question be followed by a form of という/いいますor ときく/ききます.

“[To] receive” (subject=recipient regardless of who speaks, giver is the social equal, inferior or superior): dictionary form

PL2: もらう

PL3: もらいます

"[To] receive" (subject=recipient regardless of who speaks, giver is the social equal,  inferior or superior):  negative forms.

PL2: もらわない

PL3: もらいません

"[To] receive" (subject=recipient regardless of who speaks, giver is the social equal, inferior or superior): past negative forms.

PL2: もらわなかった

PL3: もらいませんでした

"[To] receive" (subject=recipient regardless of who speaks, giver is the social equal, inferior or superior): past tenses.

PL2: もらった

PL3: もらいました

“[To] receive” (subject=recipient regardless of who speaks, speaker can be either giver or recipient, giver is the social superior): dictionary forms.

PL2: いただく

PL3: いただきます

"[To] receive" (subject=recipient regardless of who speaks, speaker can be either giver or recipient, giver is the social superior): negative forms.

PL2: いただかない

PL3: いただきません

"[To] receive" (subject=recipient regardless of who speaks, speaker can be either giver or recipient, giver is the social superior): past forms.

PL2: いただいた

PL3: いただきました

"[To] receive" (subject=recipient regardless of who speaks, speaker can be either giver or recipient, giver is the social superior): past negative forms.

PL2: いただかなかった

PL3: いただきませんでした

Regret/undesirability

-てしまう

Request (action, informally)

Just the て-form.

Request (action, politely)

て-form of a verb and add ください

Request (action, unclear who benefits)

-てもらう or -ていただく

Request (item, politely)

Say the item’s name, add the number you want and finish with ください

Request (negative)

-ないで (plus ください if polite)

Resemblance

Entire phrase/sentence + ような, which combination then modifies a noun.

Resemblance (“an X-like thing”)

みたいな (instead of  だ/です)

"[I] respectfully decline"

お断りしまし, おことわりします

(Note that this is the humble version of the verb, suitable for describing one's own actions to social superiors in formal situations)

Rhetorical question

Sentence endings:

- じゃないか

- じゃありませんか

- じゃないですか. 

Rhetorical question:  negative noun-type sentence with じゃない

Add じゃないか, so that the phrase じゃない is used twice in succession.

“…, right?”

Sentence ending with だろう or でしょう with a rising intonation?

Say what you did not want to do

PL2: -たくなかった

PL3: -たくなかったです or -たくありませんでした.

Say what you do not want to do

PL2: Negative non-past PL2: -たくない

(This is the result of conjugating the -たい form of the verb as though it were an adjective.)

If needed, explanatory の だ/ですcan be inserted in this phrase.

PL3: -たくないです or -たくありません

Say what you want to do (indirectly)

-たいform +と思う/とおもう or とおもいます. This literally means "I think I want to do..."

Say what you want to do (politely)

-て form of the verb + です (insert の if used as an explanatory extension), since the て-form works as an adjective. 

Scope or required number

で

Sharing thoughts

Quote them by following them with とand add a verb like おもう/おもいます (think/hold/believe/feel), かんがえる, かんがえます (think/contemplate) and しんじる, しんじます(believe).

“[Action] should/ought to occur”

Non-past verb-type modifier + はずだ/です

"[The] situation is, that..."

じゃないの at the end of a sentence without the intonation of a question.

Softening a strong assertion, like adding “surely?”

だろう or でしょう

Source (marker)

に

(The) specified action is enough.

-ば form of a verb + いい

Subject of an embedded sentence (marker)

の

1. Suggestion of a possible action

2. Definitive statement of what you're supposed or required to do.

3. The specified action is enough.

-ばいい

Surface on which an action takes place, like drawing on paper (marker)

に

て-form alternative for just the verb-ending ない

-ないで

て-form causative

Replace final -る with -て

て-form of an adjective

Add てto the く-form.

て-form of a verb

Change final vowel of plain past form from -a to -e. (Note:  the -て form includes the endings -て, って, -んで, -いて, -いって ,  -いで and -して, since each separate Group 1 Verb past tense has its own -て form.  Perhaps “e-form” would have been a more accurate description.)

 This form can describe:

- a manner in which something is done;

- a sequence (what precedes, comes first);

- a cause or reason for what follows;

- requesting/urging an action politely (+ ください),

- requesting an action informally;

- a relatively gentle command.

て-form of です

PL2: で

PL3: でして (only for very formal occasions)

て-form of independentない and verb-ending ない

(-)なくて

-てある form marker for direct object

が instead of を

-ている form, further conjugation

Like any other individual verb:

- ています= "is/are ~ing" (PL3);

- ていた = "was/were ~ing" (PL2);

- ていました = "was/were ~ing" (PL3).

In contractions, the い gets left out.

"That's the way it appears/seems/sounds/feels"

Full PL2 sentence + みたいだ/です(no connection with みる)

"That's what someone says/is saying/said."

って at the end of the sentence without a verb (but sometimes followed by a sentence particle like よ, さ, ね or な)

“The lack of [what came before] is the reason for [what came after].”

なくて (independent)

“Therefore” (informal, at the beginning of a sentence)

だから or ですから

“Therefore” (more formal)

ので

Things (concrete, tangible)

Generic noun もの

Things (intangibles and abstract things like questions, facts, matters, events, situations, aims, actions and so forth)

Generic noun こと

“Too / also / well, in addition to”

も

Tool or a means (marker)

で

Try/attempt

て-form + 見る (litt. “try it and see”)

"Until the described action takes/took place"

まで

Usually

たいてい

Unwillingness

Conjugate the -たい form of a verb as though it were an adjective. E.g. PL2 non-past = -たくない, PL3 non-past =-たくありません

Verb negative non-past

PL2: -ない after the pre-masu stem

PL3: either -ません after the pre-masu stem,

or, depending on whether it's a Group 1 (only final -u gets replaced) or Group 2 (whole suffix -ru gets replaced):

Verb -(あ)ないです(the latter sounds less refined than the ません-form).

Verb negative passive

Replace the final -る of the passive form with -ない/-ません (non-past) or -なかった/-ませんでした (past).

Verb plain (=PL2) non-past

Simply the dictionary form (the first one given, since the second one is always the polite form. Both forms are given to make it possible to tell if it’s a Group 1 or a Group 2 Verb.)

Verb polite (=PL3) non-past

Group 1:

Plain dictionary form minus -u plus -i (actually a shift in the kana-row to the one ending in -i, e.g. る to り) and add -ます. Exceptions are:
a. -す turns into - します

b. -つ turns into -ちます

Group 2:

Plain dictionary form minus -る plus -ます

Verb to be

だ (PL2 non-past)/です(PL3 non-past)

-て form = で (PL2) or でして (PL3, rare)

Meaning “to be” automatically included in adjectives (which can also have a polite form, past tense and a negative form)

Verb to come (irregular)

来る (くる)

PL2 past tense: 来た (きた)

PL2 negative non-past: 来ない (こない)

PL3 negative past: 来なかった (こなかった)

Verb to do (irregular)

する

PL2 past tense: した

PL2 negative non-past: しない

PL2 negative past: しなかった

Want to form plain past

Turn -たい into -たかった.

Want to form polite past

Turn -たい into -たかった (its plain past form) and then add です.

"Want to try drinking"

のんでみたい

"Want to try eating"

たべてみたい

“[Someone] wanted [an action]”

PL2: -たがる (action described by preceding verb-stem)

PL3: たがりました

“[Someone] wanted / desired [an item]"

PL2: [item] + ほしがった

PL3: [item] + ほしがりました

“[Third party]wanted something”

PL2: -がった

“[Someone]wanted to do.”

PL2: -たかった

PL3: -たかったです

“[Someone] wants [an action]"

PL2: -たがる (action described by preceding verb-stem)

PL3: -たがります

“[Someone] wants to do.”

-たい

“[Someone] wants/desires [an item]”

PL2: [item] + ほしがる

PL3: [item] + ほしがります

"[The action] was left deliberately undone."

-ないでいる or -ないでいます

"Was/were ~ing"

- ていた (PL2)

- ていました (PL3)

"When"

-ば form of a verb

"Who/what/where/how might~?"

だろうか or でしょうか as an ending for a sentence that already contains a question word.

(Can also mean "I wonder who/what/where/how~?")

“Why don’t we~?”

Polite invitation with ~ませんか, where the speaker will also be participating in what is being proposed.

"Why don't you~? / How about if you~?"

-たら and -ば verb-endings (without the addition of いい)

"[I] will buy it / make a purchase" (formal)

購入します, こうにゅうします

"[I] will call [on the phone]"

電話する, でんわする

“[Someone] will do [the action].”

もらう/いただく following the て-form of a causative verb

"[He] will drive."

運転します, うんてんします

"[I] will eat a meal"

食事します, しょくじします (cannot be used to describe eating a snack or some specific part of a meal)

"Will [the action] not happen, I wonder?"

Negative question + から/かしら

“Will not result in” (negative causative)

Group 1 Verbs:

PL2: -あせない

PL3: -あせません

Group 2 Verbs:

PL2: -させない

PL3: -させません

"[He] will request it" (i.e. "will do the request", PL3)

依頼します, いらいします

“Will you go?”

PL2: いくか

PL3: いきますか

Willingness

Replace the -ます of the dictionary form of a verb with -たい

Willingness to perform an action

いいafter the -ても form of a verb

Wish (polite, express what you want to do)

Use the -て form of the verb and add です (insert の if used as an explanatory extension), since the て-form works as an adjective.

Wish (polite, more indirect)

Add と思う/とおもう or とおもいますto the -たい form. (Lit. "I think I want to do...")

Won’t (request)

PL2: -てくれない

PL3: -てくれません

"Won't you [do the action]?"

PL3: -ません + か

"Won't you please [do the action]?"

PL2: -てくれない

PL3: -てくれません

Wondering about an action (who/what/where will be (letting) it occur)

Question beginning with question word and ending with a “let’s” form.

Would (request)

PL2: -でくれぅ

PL3: -でくれます

“[The action] X has not happened, therefore [the action] Y took place.”

-なくて as the ending of the verb that did not take place.

“[The action] X is not desired, but [the action] Y is.”

-ないで as the ending for the “undesirable” action.

“Yes, it does exist/is available.” (In response to the question if something exists or is available.)

あります