Introduction
This assignment explores how weblogs (‘blogs’) might be used to enhance learning. Initially setting the scene with the role of action/activity and experience in learning, the importance of reflection, and the role of community in learning, this assignment explores how the process of writing a blog might enhance learning, and how specific features of blogs might be used to bring maximum benefit to the learner. The assignment concludes with a set of considerations and guidelines for the use of blogs that can be applied to the learning design process.
The initial inspiration for this assignment was Vygotsky's description of the connection between thought and language (Cole et al. 1978); in particular that language symbolises the objects and relationships we observe and allows us to develop solutions, or new behaviours, that are independent from the structure of the concrete situation. How this theory relates to the blogging process is explained in more detail in my blog post of 12.05.08 (Jordan 2008).
Metablog (www.metablogger.edublogs.org) was created in May 2008 in order to gain personal experience of the extent to which using language to articulate cognitive processes can penetrate the thought process and potentially enhances learning. It was used to record my thoughts about literature on topics such as blogging, reflection, and the connections between language and thought. I tried to articulate how I felt the texts related to my own context, and to include any implications I could see for my own practice. I also invited my colleagues to read and comment on my blog, and observed how their interventions affected the reflective process. Throughout this period, through reading the literature and relating it to my own experience, it became evident to me that there are many aspects of blogging, besides simply articulating one’s thought processes, which have the potential to impact positively on learning.
Activity/Action/Experience, Reflection and Learning
Many commentators support the notion that learning requires activity - which may more appropriately be termed ‘action’ or ‘experience’, depending on the context. Chickering and Gamson (1987) highlight the importance of activity in their Seven Principles of Good Practice in Undergraduate Education, while Kolb’s (1984) learning cycle includes the gaining of concrete experience. Salmon (2002) uses ‘action’ and ‘participation’ as the basis for her ideas on e-tivity design and moderation in online settings. A number of strategies for active learning relevant to a range of settings are described in Appendix A.
While activity or experience is evidently central to the learning process, particularly in situated learning conditions, definitions of learning, such as that presented by Daudelin (1996, p.4) often include notions of behavioural change:“[learning is] the creation of meaning from past or current events that serves as a guide for future behaviour". It could be argued that for behavioural change to take place, the learner needs to actively reflect on the experience.
Bonwell & Eison (1991) claim that active learning should be defined not only as “instructional activities involving students in doing things” but also as involving students “thinking about what they are doing”. Reflection, however, is not simply ‘thinking’, and the two terms should not be seen as synonymous. My own meaning for reflection is the review and consideration of a personal experience that results in learning. The specific relationship between reflection and learning has been emphasised by many, including Boud et al. (1985), who proposed that structured reflection is the key to learning from experience, and Daudelin (1996, p4): “Reflection is the process of stepping back from an experience to ponder, carefully and persistently, its meaning to the self through the development of inferences”. We can also return to Kolb’s learning cycle (1984), in which learners engage in, observe and reflect on experiences, assimilate reflections in a theory, and then deduce implications for future action from that theory.
The importance of reflection on learning is reinforced by Mentkowski & Associates (2000), who describe ‘learning that lasts’ as:
• active and interactive, independent and collaborative
• experiential
• integrative [where connections are made across topics or contexts]
• deep and expansive, purposeful and responsible
• situated and transferable
• self-aware and reflective, self-assessed and self-regarding
The emphasis on integrative, situated and transferable learning resonates with Biggs’ (1999) ideas on fostering a deep approach to learning. Encouraging action, and reflection on that action, is likely to lead to meaningful and long lasting learning.
Individuality and community
The previous section established the importance of personal experience and personal reflection for learning. An additional dimension to the individuality of learning is the importance of engaging with a learning community. Supporting individuality and community in learning are not mutually exclusive ideas; as mentioned previously Mentkowski (2000) shows that effective learning is both independent and collaborative. In the CBASSE publication How People Learn, Bransford et al (1999) demonstrate that a good learning environment is student (individual) centred and community centred, with the other two ‘centres’ being knowledge and assessment. The dialogic aspect of teaching and learning, mentioned previously, also presupposes the importance of a learning community. The How People Learn (HPL) framework proposed by Bransford et al (1999) was the inspiration for the Legacy Cycle (VaNTH ERC 2005); a method of challenge-based instruction. The cycle highlights the importance of gaining multiple perspectives in a challenge or problem-based learning situation.
In specific reference to online learning situations, Garrison and Anderson (2003, p.22) claim that "a community of learners is an essential, core element of an educational experience when higher order learning is the desired learning outcome" and that "the idealised view of higher education, as a critical community of learners, is no longer just an ideal, but has become a practical necessity in the realisation of relevant, meaningful and continuous learning" (p 23). They describe a ‘community of inquiry’ as being composed of "teachers and students transacting with the specific purpose of facilitating, constructing and validating understanding, and of developing capabilities that will lead to further learning" (p23).
Research on professional learning communities (PLCs) has yielded a vast quantity of literature; much of which focuses on schools, but is also relevant to other contexts and industries; for example, Betty Collis’ work with Shell Exploration & Production (Collis 2008) is based on establishing a professional learning community and facilitating collaboration within it. Stoll et al (2006) list five characteristics that make professional learning communities effective:
· Shared values and vision
· Collective responsibility
· Reflective professional enquiry
· Collaboration
· Promotion of both group and individual learning
The notion of a professional learning community is not only important for professionals working within their working contexts, but also for groups of students on professional academic courses, whether or not they are working within the same company.
The challenge for today’s teachers, tutors and facilitators, including myself in my role as an e-learning developer, is how to respond to these principles. What tools do we have that will facilitate reflection-on-action and the development of learning communities, particularly when students are remote from each other? How might these tools be used optimally to maximise the benefits?
One technology that has the potential to bring these principles together is the weblog, or ‘blog’. In the following sections I will explore the particular characteristics of blogs that are conducive to personal reflection, how they can support the development and growth of learning communities, and ultimately how all members of a learning community can maximise the benefit they gain from blogging. Some background information about blogs and blogging tools is provided in Appendix B.
Features of blogs conducive to reflection:
Daudelin (1996) concedes that ‘spontaneous reflection’ on nagging, unresolved problems can occur during mindless, rhythmic physical activities that do not demand the brain’s full attention. However, although this mode of reflection is useful for framing the problem through the sorting of existing information, combining it with a more deliberate and conscious mode of reflection is more likely to result in a change in behaviour. The following characteristics of blogs can assist the conscious reflective process:
Ease of use:
Blogging tools such as Blogger and Edublogs are not overly complex. They permit the author to focus solely on what they are writing, rather than the technology that is involved in the layout of the blog and the display of the posts on the screen. This frees up the cognitive capacity of the author to engage with deep thought processes such as structured reflection.
Ease of publication
Even if the author makes no adjustments to the default layout and ‘theme’ settings, the ‘public face’ of a blog will appear slick and professional. With very little additional effort, such as adding an image to the title bar, and tagging up posts with categories, the blog becomes personalised, aesthetically pleasing and easier to navigate around. The ease of publishing makes posting on the blog more enjoyable (and therefore more likely), as it enhances the author’s sense of satisfaction and pride in what they have produced. This characteristic of blogging software may also contribute towards the willingness of the author to publicise their blog in the public domain.
Externalising thought
In the introductory section I wrote about the connection Vygotsky (Cole 1978) made between language and thought. It is interesting that, years after we have internalised the egocentric speech that as children we spoke out loud, we feel the need to externalise it again in order to make sense of our thoughts. Given the complex nature of the reflective process, it makes sense that we might find it helpful to use symbols for problems that are less transient than the language of internal speech - in other words, that we find it helpful to note down our thought processes. This is discussed further in my blog post of 03.07.08 (Jordan 2008). However, there is another factor that affects the reflective process once we begin to externalise it - and that is the social context in which we publicise our thoughts.
The actual process of writing for others, whether within a community or in an entirely public domain, certainly encourages a blog author to articulate their thoughts clearly, and also to rationalise them (why do I think that?) and to evaluate their relevance & implications (‘so what?’), because they know that is what their readers will be asking of them. The process of articulating a problem, or an concept not understood, is the first stage in the reflective process, and involves defining the problem, or source of confusion or doubt, and framing it in a way that has personal meaning. Daudelin (1996, p40) states that “the clear articulation of a problem is often an insight in itself”. Personal experience also supports the argument that, if a solution is not immediately obvious, the process of articulating the problem is the first step towards locating possible answers. This process is illustrated in the comment thread of the first post on my own blog (Jordan 2008), where articulating exactly what I didn’t understand about a comment posted by my tutor was the first and vital step in being able to respond fully to his questions.
Spontaneous publication
“Being allowed to write spontaneously releases us of the expectation that our writing must be perfect and polished.” (Mortensen & Walker, 2002)
Adrian Miles’ blog entry about the challenges of the writing process (Miles 2008) supports personal experience of writing a blog; whether to plan; having too many ideas at once and not knowing where to start, among others, despite having expectations of the usual challenges of writing to be absent from the blogging process, as suggested by Mortensen & Walker (2002). However, personal experience indicates that as a blogger becomes accustomed to the process of publishing some thoughts quickly and revisiting them later on, it becomes easier to be spontaneous. In her blog, ‘thinking with my fingers’ (Mortensen 2001) Torill Mortensen writes: “I can sneak up on [a thought] at a time when my head is busy with something else, and I can surprise it in a different context.” Personal experience also supports the importance of this strategy for the clarification and development of ideas; the spontaneity of the original post is only the first part of the process, revisiting, revising and adding to it is the next stage.
Hyperlinking
Through the use of hyperlinks, a blog post becomes an entry point, or signpost, to a virtually infinite store of related information. The author’s intention may be to return to their post later on and use the links to follow on a previously unexplored path. The links may, on the other hand, lead to resources the author has already accessed, in which case the links provide a record of where the author has been and a series of signposts for the reader to explore around the topic. The very name ‘weblog’ is seen by some commentators to reflect the initial purpose of recording, storing for reference and sharing the author’s “journey around the web” (Paquet 2002, cited in Farmer 2004) ‘Trackbacks’, or incoming links, can also be added to a blog from external sites; these, along with blog indexes like technorati.com, are largely responsible for pulling new readers into a blog. Many blog indexes use the number of trackbacks as an indication of a blog’s popularity or status. Some further thoughts about hyperlinking are presented in my blog post of 28.06.08 (Jordan 2008).
It is generally agreed in the literature that hyperlinking is a key feature of the blog format. As Torill Mortensen and Jill Walker (2002) wrote in Blogging Thoughts; “take the links out of a weblog and you are left with a web diary, a much more introverted and private form of writing”. The issue of privacy is linked to ethics and context, all of which are considered in the final section of this assignment.
Tagging & Categorisation
Most blogging tools allow authors to ‘tag’ posts with keywords or link them to ‘categories’. This allows readers, and indeed the author, to search for specific posts or to filter out posts on a certain topic. This ensures that related trails of thought are linked together, regardless of whether the author has consciously intended to do so.
Features of blogs conducive to the development of a learning community:
Farmer (2004) states that “Weblogs can offer new opportunities for the development of online learning communities”, while a 2005 study by Efimova and de Moor (cited in Birney 2006) concluded that weblogs serve as a true conversation tool, supporting fast and meaningful reactions, exchange of multiple perspectives and joint development of ideas; all of which are important factors in the growth and sustenance of a learning community.
But how exactly do they do this? We can look at the facility for readers to comment on posts, the ‘trackback’ function and the blog directories that draw new readers in, but perhaps there is also something occurring at the affective level that impacts on the way people think and behave within the ‘blogosphere’? It may be helpful to examine the notion of social, cognitive and teacher presence which, according to Garrison, Anderson and Archer (1999), are the key elements in a community of inquiry, and should form the basis of the evaluation of a learning technology.
Garrison et al. (1999) define cognitive presence as “the extent to which the participants in any particular configuration of a community of inquiry are able to construct meaning through sustained communication” (p89). They go on to state that “cognitive presence is a vital element in critical thinking, a process and outcome that is frequently presented as the ostensible goal of all higher education.” Indicators of cognitive presence may include an articulation of a sense of puzzlement, the exchange of information, the connecting of concepts and the application of new ideas.
The primary role of social presence is the indirect facilitation of critical thinking. Social presence is defined by Garrison et al. (1999) as the extent to which the medium of communication allows participants to project their personal characteristics into the community; i.e. to present themselves as “real people”. A secondary role of social presence is in helping participants to enjoy the interaction and gain personal fulfilment from it.
Teaching presence incorporates the design and the facilitation of the educational experience; the extent to which the tools support and enhance social and cognitive presence for the purpose of realising educational outcomes.
Farmer (2004) argues that, in terms of establishing social presence, “weblogs offer a significant opportunity for users to project themselves as real people.” The blogger is writing within their own space and has control over how they express themselves. The option to add photos, audio and/or video to blog posts brings even more opportunity for the author to present their full personality. But do blogs help participants to construct meaning; i.e. do they have cognitive presence? Weblogs can certainly support sustained discourse if they have an active readership - as illustrated in Bloom (2003), although the degree of reflection and critical analysis taking place can vary.
Considerations & guidelines for the use of blogs in activity design
Presuming blogs are being used for ‘reflection’, ensure that there is something of sufficient value upon which to reflect.
A weblog is a reflective medium (Farmer 2004) and is therefore most appropriate for use in contexts where questions are to be asked about an experience; where there are “uncertainties, discrepancies and dissatisfactions which precipitate, and are central to, any notion of reflection” (Boud & Walker 1998); what John Dewey calls "a state of doubt, hesitancy, perplexity, or mental difficulty” (Dewey 1993).
Ensure students are aware of what constitutes reflection
Although reflection can be a complex process, it is important not to assume that students know what reflection is. Daudelin (1996) provides a simple breakdown of the reflective process as follows:
Daudelin writes that the final stage, action (or deciding whether to act), “brings closure to the cycle and is the final "test" of the hypothesis. It is only through this last stage that true learning occurs” (p41).
Avoid being too prescriptive about the reflective process
Asking students to ‘reflect’ by following a set format or checklist can lead to false expectations of reflection being a linear and unproblematic process that can be memorised. Boud and Walker (1998) argue that stages or elements of the reflective process should be presented as conceptual elements rather than an operational process. However, there is potential for tension here, as “without some direction, reflection can become diffuse and disparate so that conclusions or outcomes may not emerge” (p193).
Frameworks for reflection such as John’s Questions (Appendix C, from Pee et al 2002), which were originally designed for use in the nursing profession, and the reflective thinking questions developed by Bourner (2003 - see Appendix D), may be of use when introducing a reflective task, but care should be taken to ensure that students use them as tools for engaging at depth with the experience, rather than as a rigid format or checklist. The use of frameworks for guiding reflection is discussed in my blog posts of 27.10.08 and 10.11.08 (Jordan 2008).
Consideration: Is the reflective blogging process to be assessed?
Whether the reflective process should be assessed depends on the context; on how and why blogging is being used. The multiple effects of context on reflection are discussed in depth by Boud and Walker (1998), who point out that the assessment of reflection is a questionable goal (citing Sumsion & Fleet 1996), while supporting the use of specific criteria for the recognition of reflective writing, such as Hatton and Smith’s (1994). Some initial thoughts about the assessment of blogging activities, with particular reference to self-assessment, can be found in my blog post of 26.10.08 (Jordan 2008).
Bourner (2003, p268) writes about the obstacles to assessment of reflective learning: “a significant and variable proportion of the learning outcomes of reflection is subjective knowledge…only the person doing the reflection can assess whether learning has occurred that is significant to them…it is difficult to see what external standard can be used for measuring the worth of the learning”.
There is general consensus in the literature that, if a reflective task is to be assessed against an external standard, it is important that the criteria for that assessment are focused purely on the quality and depth of the reflection taking place. An environment where students fear that they may be penalised for revealing lack of understanding is not conducive to reflection. Boud and Walker (1998, p194) argue that, if students begin to censor their reflections, they may “fail to engage with their felt experience and avoid learning”. Bourner (2003, p270) points out that “when we assess reflection it is important that we do not assess the content of an experience but rather that we assess what the student has done with that content”.
It could therefore be argued that, provided the process of reflective thinking is being assessed against an appropriate learning outcome, such as “the capacity to capture the lessons of the experience” (Bourner 2003, p272), and is therefore distinguished from the content of the learning, there are no significant obstacles to assessing reflection, provided it is appropriate to do so.
Birney (2008) argues that existing models of reflective practice focus on reflection as a solitary activity rather than a collaborative one, and that new ways of assessing reflective practice are needed that consider the effect of interaction and feedback on students’ reflections. In certain contexts it may be appropriate to assess the degree to which students are contributing to the development of the learning community, through collaborative activity such as commenting on peers’ blog posts. There are a few examples of rubrics for marking online discussions that may be adapted for this purpose; one example being the discussion scoring rubric from the Australian Flexible Learning Framework (date of publication unknown).
Consideration: Is the blog an appropriate medium?
Most blogging tools have two privacy settings - private (individual) and public - with no option to set up a closed circle of blogs within a group of people. Depending on the context of the activity, it may be preferable, and sometimes essential from an ethical point of view, to restrict access to reflections and comments within the community of learners. Many HE institutions have a blogging tool within their virtual learning environments that will at least restrict access to persons within the institution, and often within course groups. In the absence of VLE blogs, other tools such as wikis can be used for reflective work and set up with access controls so that only named individuals may read and comment. If the content of the reflection is highly sensitive it may be more appropriate to use personal journals. In all cases, bearing in mind that “it is difficult and often inappropriate to focus reflection tightly”, it may be helpful to initiate a discussion at the start of the activity about what constitutes an appropriate level of disclosure. However, given that learning has affective dimensions in addition to cognitive dimensions, participants should ideally be reflecting in an environment where “the expression of feelings is accepted and legitimate” (Boud & Walker 1998, p194). This brings further challenges, as discussed below.
Consideration: Are you prepared to open the floodgates?
Presuming one has carefully fostered an environment conducive to open, honest reflection, and developed a community of learners who communicate willingly with each other through their blogs, it is naïve to assume that all the students’ personal reflections and/or discourse will be positive, productive, discreet and tactful, and within the boundaries the tutor has set, explicitly or implicitly, for the activity.
Boud and Walker (1998) warn of the power of reflective activity to tap into difficult issues, from personal distress to perceived faults with the programme of study. Personal experience supports this, and also indicates that the development of a close network of collaborative learners can compound this effect, as students’ individual discomforts are shared and may, in some cases, build up into collective discomforts. This is discussed in more depth in my blog post of 30.12.08.
Consideration: When and how should reflective blogging be introduced?
Boud et al. (1985) suggest that reflective activities can (and should) be used at each of the three stages of experience-based learning: preparation, engagement, and processing. Personal experience indicates that it is possible to benefit from reflection on earlier stages of the experience in hindsight, although contemporaneous reflection may be more effective in terms of useful learning (i.e. modification of behaviour). If blogging is to be used within a community of learners, the existing relationships between the participants should also be considered; are they all sufficiently prepared to contribute and engage with the task? Are there technical obstacles that need to be overcome before the activity should be introduced? Is there likely to be an imbalance in activity with some participants posting and commenting much more profusely than others? Personal experience has indicated that this is often the case with collaborative activites, particularly in the early stages, but early adopters have a key role to play in supporting and encouraging other participants. However, a ‘critical mass’ of active participants is often needed in order for anyone to gain significant benefit. In maximising initial participation, personal experience supports the importance of giving participants a degree of ownership of the design of the activity, including the aims and expected outcomes.
Conclusion
This assignment has drawn on established theory on reflection, learning communities and online collaboration in a discussion of the academic case for the use of blogs in activity design.
Setting the scene with the role of action/activity and experience in learning, the importance of reflection, and the role of community, this assignment has demonstrated how the blogging process can maximise student engagement and enhance learning, by providing a route to learning that is active and interactive, independent and collaborative. It has also been argued that the blogging process can facilitate the development of connections across topics and contents, and can be conducive to reflection on situations and experiences. Particular emphasis is given to the concept of social presence in learning activities, and how blogs can be used to put the student at the centre of the learning experience.
Following a discussion on how the specific features of blogs might be used to bring maximum benefit to the learner, this assignment culminates in a set of considerations and guidelines for planning and designing blogging activities in an HE setting.
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