Introduction

The Christian church can trace its history back to the first century in the book of Acts when the Holy Spirit fell upon the disciples and the followers of Christ at Pentecost.  The inception of the church began a history that tells of the greatness of the person of Christ and what He does in and through people; however, it also began a history that is riddled with the ideas of man and selfishness that man brings into the arena of the Sacred.  Constantine is a significant figure in church history, and it behooves us to study what his influences were.  Much of what he did and instituted have gotten us to where we are today in the church, both positively and negatively.  The effects are seen in his life and the repercussions of his actions after his death.

PART I: CONSTANTINE’S HISTORY

Early History

Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus, more commonly known as Constantine the Great or Constantine I, was born somewhere between AD 274 and AD 288.  Constantius, a Roman officer who later became the Roman Emperor, was his father and was not a believer in Christ.  He seemed to be tolerant of Christianity but did not follow Christ himself.  Eusebius would go as far as saying that “At a time when four emperors shared the administration of the Roman empire, Constantius alone, following a course of conduct different from that pursued by his colleagues, entered into the friendship of the Supreme God.”[1]  Constantius’ friendship with the Supreme God would be found in the fact that he did not support the persecution of Christians.  His mother, Helena, was a Christian and always desired to see her son follow her Savior.

           

Rise to Power

Constantine’s rise to power must be discussed in order to fully understand what was happening in the Roman Empire and what led him to his belief that Christianity should become the official state religion of Rome.  His father died in July of AD 306 and Constantine was immediately proclaimed Caesar by his troops, and possibly himself as well, and was acknowledged as such by Galerius, the Eastern Emperor of Rome.  Civil wars would rage on between the other three emperors of Rome as Constantine would remain silent in those campaigns while defending his borders against armies from Germany.[2]

            Early in Constantine’s reign, he and Licinius were in control of the Roman Empire.  Constantine reigned in the west and Licinius in the east.  Constantine’s tactics throughout his reign were very calculated and political.  “An astute statesman, Constantine challenged his rivals one at a time, always protecting his flanks before making the next move.  Thus, although his campaign against Maxentius seemed sudden, he had been preparing for it, both militarily and politically, for many years.”[3]

Galerius would die a brutal death in AD 311 and Maxentius would rise to power in Rome, threatening Constantine’s control of the western empire.  War between the two emperors was now inevitable.  The fighting would begin in the spring of AD 312 and end that fall.[4]

The battle of the Milvian Bridge was the defining moment of Constantine’s life.  This was the final struggle between Maxentius and Constantine and would give Constantine the control of the entire Western Roman Empire.  Constantine’s army was heavily outnumbered, but he continued to press on toward Rome.  “In spite of the overwhelming numbers of his enemy (an estimated 100,000 in Maxentius’ army against 20,000 in Constantine’s army) the emperor confidently marched forward to Rome.”[5]/[6] 

Conversion

Just before the battle, Constantine claimed to have a vision.  In this vision, He saw the “chi-ro”, the first two letters of the name of Christ in Greek, positioned together to look like a cross shining above the sun.  The cross bared the inscription “in hoc signo vinces” (“in this sign you will be victorious”).[7]  He took this to be a sign from God to make an alliance with Christianity in order to bring him victory.  It has been said that Constantine had the soldiers of his army paint the symbol of the “chi-ro” on their shields before they marched into battle.  “Following this Constantine went on to defeat the numerically stronger army of Maxentius at the Battle at the Milvian Bridge (Oct AD 312).”[8] Maxentius would die in the battle and the war would be over.

Constantine saw this as a victory from God and decided to make Christianity his “official” religion in AD 312.[9]  “Henceforth Constantine saw himself as an ‘emperor of the Christian people’.”[10]  Many see the “vision” experience to be the conversion of Constantine to Christianity.  Other historians do not believe he officially became a “convert” until his deathbed when he was baptized, as that was seen as the beginning of conversion in the church at that time.  It matters not to church history when Constantine’s conversion was.  The history of Christianity and the Church would be forever changed as this new emperor rose to power.

Rise of Christianity

The next year, AD 313, he and Licinius got together and created widespread tolerance of Christianity with the Edict of Milan.  He removed the penalties forbidding the confession of Christianity and returned property back to the churches in the kingdom.[11]  The church would change, largely as a result of this.  No longer would the followers of Christ have to run and hide when the soldiers of the empire came around.  Martyrdom was no longer a threat.  The church in the west would experience the freedom that it had always longed for. 

Licinius abided by the Edict of Milan and ended all persecution in the east as well.  However, the Christian church in the east had many divisions which led to much civil unrest.  As Licinius tried to quell the divisions and the unrest, many in the church began to claim that Constantine was the “defender of the true faith,” and as “the emperor whom God loved.”[12]  Licinius never claimed to be a Christian, but it seemed as though he did fear the power of the Christian God.[13]  He would later find that many of the Christians in his territory were praying for his rival, Constantine, and he would then take action against the believers in the east.  This gave Constantine the opportunity to further present himself as the Christian Emperor and the “defender of Christianity against Licinius the persecutor.”[14]

Constantine would invade Licinius’ territories in AD 322 claiming that he was pursuing a band of barbarians who had crossed the Danube River.  Licinius looked upon this as an act of war and prepared his troops for battle.  Constantine’s army marched under the labarum, the “chi-ro.”  This emblem alone would prove the fear that Licinius had for the Christian God as he directed his troops not to look at the Christian symbol or even “direct a frontal attack against it.”[15] 

Eventually, Licinius suffered many defeats across the eastern empire and he was forced to abdicate his throne in exchange for his life.  Constantine now controlled the entire Roman Empire as the Augustus.  Shortly after that power was obtained, Licinius was murdered.  Some chroniclers indicated that he had been conspiring against Constantine; others hinted that Constantine had ordered his death or at least approved of it.[16]

Constantine as Emperor

            Licinius’ death confirmed Constantine as the sole Roman Emperor.  He desired to unite the Empire and see its glory restored to the old days of Rome.  Through the vision that he had and his consequent victories in battle and politics, he felt as though Christianity would be the uniting force for this new Roman Empire under his rule. 

            Constantine’s victories in battle also brought another large idea into his mind.  The city of Byzantium was the capitol of the Eastern Empire before it had been unified with the Western Empire.  He saw this city as yet another unifying factor for the empire as it sat in a very strategic location in the middle of the two segments of the Roman Empire.  He decided to move the Roman capitol to Byzantium, which would later be named Constantinople or “The City of Constantine”, in AD 324.  He officially proclaimed the city as the new capitol of the Roman Empire in AD 330.[17]  “Constantine’s choice – for which he took no credit, claiming that he was following instructions from God – proved to be most wise, for the city that he founded would play a strategic role for centuries to come,”[18] both in the secular world and in the history of the Church.

PART II: CONSTANTINE’S DECISIONS ON CHRISTIANITY

            It now is of utmost importance to study the impact of Constantine’s history and his further acts after his ascension as the sole Roman Emperor in AD 323 had upon the church during his time and for centuries to come.

Edict of Milan

            As stated before, the Edict of Milan was issued in AD 313 by the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Licinius.  This edict was a confirmation of Galerius’ edict in AD 309 that proclaimed tolerance of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire.[19]  This act was the beginning of a new age for Christianity and the church. 

Christians had been persecuted for some of the first and third centuries and the entirety of the second century.  It is estimated that that 3,000,000 Christians were martyred for their faith during the ten major persecutions by the Roman Empire upon Christendom between AD 54 to AD 305.[20]

Now the church had a new dawn of freedom that had never been experienced before.  There would be some sporadic persecutions from various people in the empire, but there would be no more official persecution from the government.  “And thus by this wholesome counsel and most upright provision we thought to arrange that no one whatsoever should be denied the opportunity to give his heart to the observance of the Christian religion…Therefore, your Worship should know that it has pleased us to remove all conditions whatsoever…concerning Christians…”[21]

Constantine now paved the way to make Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire.  Philip Schaff noted about the Edict in his book, History of the Christian Church, “…it was a decisive step from hostile neutrality to friendly neutrality and protection, and prepared the way for the legal recognition of Christianity, as the

religion of the empire.”[22]  Many see the Edict of Milan as the establishment of Christianity as the official state religion; however, it seems more likely that Constantine made the official declaration sometime in AD 323.

Constantine seemed to make this move as much for political gain as for spiritual or personal reasons.  He ordered all provincial magistrates to give back all property to the churches and to Christian individuals “at once with all energy, so that public order may be restored and the continuance of the Divine favor may ‘preserve and prosper our successes together with the good of the state.’”[23]  This indicated a desire to see the empire restored to its previous glory by means of the Christian God.

Christianity Made Official

            In AD 323, Constantine became the sole Roman Emperor as has already been referenced.  The next year, he made Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire and ordered his troops to worship the Supreme God on the first day of the week, Sunday.[24]  The most unfortunate circumstance, and one that indicates his lack of understanding of following Christ, is the fact that he gave twenty silver coins to any and all soldiers that would “convert” to Christianity.  He also labeled himself as the “Casero Papacy”, or the “Bishop of Bishops.”  Clearly, Constantine wanted to create a type of Theocracy where he would be the leader of not only the secular government, but the “Caesar of Religion” as well.

           

The Council of Nicea

The Arian controversy had risen to climactic levels in the Christian church at this time.  The church of Alexandria had been arguing over the nature of Christ in relationship to the Father; whether Jesus was of the same substance of the Father or a different substance of the Father.  The deity of Christ was at stake.  Constantine had made Christianity the official religion of the state in order to bring peace and stability to the Empire, not more arguing and fighting.  So, in AD 325, he convened the First Council of Nicea upon the recommendations of a synod led by Hosius of Cordoba.[25]

            Constantine invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (there were about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west), but only 250 to 320 bishops made it to the council.[26] Any bishop that wished to attend the council had his way fully paid by the state, as Constantine desired to have this issue resolved.  It is interesting that Constantine himself presided over the council, as well as convoking it.  Eusebius paints a picture of Constantine as a heavenly messenger entering the council and sitting at the throne: “he himself proceeded through the midst of the assembly, like some heavenly messenger of God, clothed in raiment which glittered as it were with rays of light, reflecting the glowing radiance of a purple robe, and adorned with the brilliant splendor of gold and precious stones. Such was the external appearance of his person; and with regard to his mind, it was evident that he was distinguished by piety and godly fear.”[27]  In his defense, however, Constantine did not vote in the council, he left the decision over the Arian controversy and the other topics of debate up to the clergy of the Christian church.

            This council decided that Eusebius of Nicomedia and Arius were heretics in their belief that Christ was of a different substance of the Father.  The Nicene Creed was written to indicate that Christ was of the same substance of the Father, homoouisos, and “accepted by the council as an expression of the bishops’ common faith and the ancient faith of the whole Church.”[28]

            Constantine declared that everyone who refused to endorse the Nicean Creed would be exiled from the kingdom.  Arius, Theonas and Secundus refused to accept the Creed and, as a result, were exiled as well as excommunicated from the Church.  The works of Arius were ordered to be thrown into the fire and destroyed.  However, Constantine later changed his mind and invited Arius, along with his position on Christ, back into the Church and exiled Alexander and Athanasius, both of the Nicene persuasion.  This was the first act that would have both a consequence from the Church and the secular government.

Donatist Schism

            There were many believers that had denied Christ or given over documents of Scripture to the government during the heavy persecution of the Roman Empire.  The church in Africa had split over whether or not to allow those Christians back into the Church.  The Donatists, those in the church who did not want to allow those particular believers back into the church, called upon Constantine to help them solve the schism.  He got involved in AD 314 and the decision went against the Donatists.  They did not accept the decision of the council and began to see Constantine as a devil.  “In 317 Constantine sent troops to deal with the Donatists in Carthage, for the first time Christian persecuting Christian. It resulted in banishments and even executions. It failed completely and Constantine had to withdraw and cancel the persecutions in 321.”[29]

PART III: CONSTANTINE’S DIRECT INFLUENCE UPON THE CHURCH

There is no question that Constantine’s actions during his reign made an impact on Christianity and the Church that would be felt for centuries to come.  Many are still felt today.  There is no real way to determine if he was a true believer or not, that is a decision left up to God alone.  However, there are indications as to his “true colors.”

Constantine did truly believe in the power of Christ.  He saw the vision that he believed to be from God and ended his conflict with Maxentius.  He saw that victory as from God Himself.  “For Him, the Christian God was a very powerful being who would support him as long as he favored the faithful.”[30] He didn’t care as much about the support of the Christians as he did about the support of God. 

He also seemed to think that some pagan religions combined well with Christianity.  He sometimes consulted the oracle of Apollo, accepted Emperor Worship from the people of Rome and took part in many pagan ceremonies, not believing that he was angering the God of the Christians.  He allowed the symbol of the “Unconquered Sun” on coinage for a period of time.  “…almost to his dying day Constantine continued functioning as the High Priest of paganism.”[31]  It is also interesting to note that Constantine became one of the pagan gods after his death.[32]

One can clearly see that Constantine saw himself as a type of gift of God to the Church.  His actions were the first that would attempt to meld the state and the church together into one entity functioning together.  He saw Christianity as a way of unifying the Empire.

This act left repercussions in Church history until the Crusades of the 18^th century.[33]  The Church became focused on her power in the political world and began to call for Christian violence against the Muslims in the Crusades. 

The Church’s leaders eventually exalted themselves to the leaders of the Theocracy that developed as a result of the one started by Constantine.  She raised her leadership, the bishops, to the position of an intercessor between God and man.  Salvation was controlled by the Church, not God.  The Papacy was formed and much of the world entered the doors of the Church.  Instead of the Church being the humble servant of Christ, she became the political giant of the world for centuries to come.

Constantine did much to advance the cause of Christ.  Persecution had ceased and the Church could now worship as she saw fit.  He had helped the Church come to a unifying Christology.  However, he also started a series of events that eventually led to some of the darkest days in the history of Christianity.  As John Leeland, an 18^th century pastor, said, “The darkest day of the church was when Constantine made Christianity the state religion of Rome.”[34]

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