Accommodations: Teaching supports that a child requires to successfully learn in the classroom. Examples of accommodations are providing the child with additional time to take tests, allowing the child with written language difficulties to dictate answers, or providing the child with attention difficulties preferential seating in the front of the classroom. The term “modification” is used when the curriculum is actually changed – see the definition of “modifications” below.
ADD: See Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
AD/HD: See Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Antecedents: A term used while conducting a functional behavioral assessment to refer to environmental events that immediately precede the behavior of concern. For example, an antecedent to an angry outburst could be “being told what to do.”
Anxiety: State of arousal, fear, or tension, which everyone experiences at one time or another. At times, significant and persistent anxiety can be characterized as an “Anxiety Disorder.” See description of Anxiety Disorders below.
Anxiety Disorders: A grouping of clinical disorders described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR) that have anxiety as a key component. Examples of anxiety disorders include Specific Phobia, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. See description of each disorder elsewhere in this glossary.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A Disruptive Behavior Disorder which is characterized by hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention. Symptoms in these core areas must be present early in life and must impact a child’s functioning. This is a common diagnosis for children who have difficulty sitting still, completing tasks, or concentrating at school. The term “ADD” or Attention Deficit Disorder is from a prior edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. This term is still widely used among the general public to indicate that a child has attention difficulties but is not demonstrating significant behavioral challenges. The defining criteria of ADHD may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Asperger’s Disorder: A condition which is part of a larger diagnostic category called “Autism spectrum disorders” or “Pervasive Developmental Disorders.” Children with Asperger’s Disorder have severe and sustained impairments in social interaction. They also have challenges with restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. The defining criteria of Asperger’s Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Auditory-type information: Information that is received through the auditory system (i.e., ears). A lecture given by a teacher is an example of auditory-type information being delivered to the student. Some people learn best by listening. Others learn best by seeing. Some people have challenges with learning through hearing. If a deficit is found in the auditory system, they may have trouble learning information delivered through sounds alone.
Autistic Disorder (Autism): A Pervasive Developmental Disorder that is characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication skills. Children with Autistic Disorder also have restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, and activities. The defining criteria of Autistic Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Breakdown points: The specific points where a child’s learning goes awry. This is a concept Dr. Mel Levine uses in his book A Mind at a Time. He notes that a good assessment should isolate specific breakdown points so that strategies can be used to address challenges. For example, in reading, a breakdown point could be not being able to identify certain letters. In written language, a breakdown point could be that the child has difficulty coming up with her own ideas.
Bipolar Disorder: A mood disorder characterized by cyclical periods of depression and mania. The defining criteria of Bipolar Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD): A disorder in how auditory information is processed in the brain. It is not due to a hearing impairment. Instead, individuals with CAPD have normal hearing but have difficulty understanding certain auditory information presented to them.
Cognition: Learning and thinking.
Cognitive Processing Disorder: A disorder, or learning challenge, in which intelligence is normal, yet despite this normal intelligence, a child with a cognitive processing disorder may have difficulty applying what he or she knows. Or a child with a cognitive processing disorder may take much more time to demonstrate what he or she knows. Typically, a child with a cognitive processing disorder does not do well on timed tests. Instead, more time is needed to complete the same amount of items as other students have completed in a shorter amount of time.
Consequences: A term used while conducting a functional behavioral assessment, to refer to environmental events that immediately follow the behavior of concern. For example, a consequence of persistent angry behavior could be that the child loses all of his friends.
Communication Disorder: A disorder that is characterized by impairment in some aspects of speech or language skills. Examples of Communication Disorders include Expressive Language Disorders, Mixed Expressive-Receptive Language Disorders, Phonological Disorders, and Stuttering. Each of these disorders is defined elsewhere in this glossary. The defining criteria of Communication Disorders may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Conduct Disorder: A disruptive behavior disorder in which a child engages in behavior that persistently violates the rights of others in some way. A young person with a conduct disorder may be aggressive toward others. Another person with a Conduct Disorder may steal, destroy property, or seriously violate the rules in some manner. The defining criteria of conduct disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Cultural factors: Factors that affect the development of psychopathology and that are related to a person’s cultural background. For example, sometimes children from different cultures are diagnosed early in their lives as having speech/language disorders. However, children from certain cultures may begin to speak later than others because early verbalization may not necessarily be encouraged. Thus, depending on the cultural norms, a child at 4 years of age may or may not necessarily have a disorder. A quality assessment of a child must always include examination of cultural factors that could be at play.
Daily living skills: These include skills such as dressing, bathing, eating, socialization, and dealing with money.
Demystification: A process through which the child discovers the characteristics of his or her profile. In this guide, I have recommended that parents develop a profile of “strengths and weaknesses” for their child. This is a concept Dr. Mel Levine uses in his book, A Mind at a Time. Dr. Levine calls this a neurodevelopmental profile. Once a child understands his or her developmental profile, he or she is more likely to perform better at school.
Developmental psychopathology: An approach to the study of behavioral and emotional difficulties in children that combines the fields of psychopathology and developmental psychology. The aim is to understand the central mechanisms of what causes a child to engage in or acquire a particular type of disorder or difficulty. The field of developmental psychopathology takes information from a variety of disciplines and philosophies in order to look for “truths.”
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR): A manual that contains the diagnostic criteria for a comprehensive set of “mental disorders” or forms of psychopathology. It was completed by a number of workgroups and is published by the American Psychiatric Association. Mental health clinicians use this manual in their practice for diagnoses and research.
Disruptive Behavior Disorders: Disorders that are considered more externalizing in nature. Types of Disruptive Behavior Disorders include Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Conduct Disorder, and Oppositional Defiant Disorder. Each of these disorders is described elsewhere in this glossary. The defining criteria of disruptive behavior disorders may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Dyslexia: A specific learning disability that is considered neurological in origin. Dyslexia is often characterized by challenges in word recognition, poor spelling, and difficulties with decoding. Most Dyslexia typically results from a deficit in phonological processing (i.e., the ability to distinguish between different sounds).
Echolalia: Repeating over and over what other people say.
Emotional intelligence: A type of intelligence that refers to the ability to understand and express emotions effectively.
Dysthymic Disorder: A type of Mood Disorder that is characterized by a depressed mood for most of the day, for most days, and for at least 1 year for children. The defining criteria of Dysthymic Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Electromyography (EMG): A test that examines the health of the muscles and the nerves.
Electroencephalography (EEG): A test that measures the electrical activity of the brain (i.e., brainwaves).
Emotional regulation: The ability to regulate one’s emotions.
Expressive Language Disorder: A Communication Disorder in which the child has difficulty expressing herself with verbal language. The defining criteria of Expressive Language Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Extinction burst: A term to meaning that the behavior of concern often gets worse before it gets better.
Executive functioning: The brain’s ability to gather information, make interpretations, and make decisions based upon the inputted information. Children may have difficulties with executive functioning if they have difficulties with attention or controlling their impulses. Neuropsychological testing is indicated if there are concerns about executive functioning.
Fine motor skills: Small muscle movements in the finger, in coordination with the eyes.
Fluency: Being able to quickly and accurately complete a particular task. For example, a person has good reading fluency when he or she can read quickly and accurately. Language fluency describes when a person can quickly articulate words and sentences in an effective manner. Good fluency is generally a reliable indication that a person has good speed of information processing.
Functional behavioral assessment: A term from the field of applied behavioral analysis to refer to the process of determining the cause (or “function”) of a behavior of concern. A functional behavioral assessment helps to form a hypothesis for the behavior so that an appropriate intervention may be developed and implemented.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder: An Anxiety Disorder characterized by excessive anxiety and worry that causes much turmoil in a person’s life. The source of the anxiety is often unknown. The defining criteria of Generalized Anxiety Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Generalization: When learned behavior, skills, and/or emotions are exhibited across settings and situations.
Gifted: A term to refer to the cognitive strengths of a child. There is no universally accepted definition of what is considered gifted. The most common definition is that a child is considered gifted when he or she has achieved a score on an intelligence test above 130. This score is two or more standard deviations above the mean. Psychologists typically provide the assessment in this area.
Gross motor skills: The ability to use large muscles (e.g., in the legs, arms) in a coordinated fashion to do such activities as walking, running, jumping, throwing a ball, etc. Occupational and physical therapists are typically called upon to provide assessment in this area.
Hypothesis testing: A hypothesis is a proposed reason that explains some type of phenomenon of study. In this guide, hypothesis testing refers to the process of investigating proposed reasons for puzzling behavior. When attempting to understand puzzling behavior, it is best to form an initial hypothesis about why a child does what he or she does. Then, this hypothesis is used to guide future interventions and assessment.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): The IDEA is a federal law that protects the rights of students with disabilities. The IDEA is the foundation of what is currently known as “special education” in today’s public schools.
Learned helplessness: A pattern of behavior in which the individual feels helpless to work through challenges on his or her own.
Learning disability: Learning disabilities generally refer to challenges in the ability to understand or use spoken or written language, read, do mathematical calculations, or complete mathematically-based problems. The term “learning disability” is one of the disability categories in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and is used frequently in public schools.
Learning Disorder: A disorder in which a child’s skills in reading, written language, or mathematics is substantially lower than that expected, given the child’s age, schooling, and level of intellectual ability. The term “Learning Disorder” is used interchangeably with the term “Learning Disability” and “Dyslexia.” The term “Learning Disorder” is from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): A medical procedure used to scan inside the human body in order to assess for possible medical difficulties.
Major Depressive Disorder: A Mood Disorder characterized by significant depression over a period of several weeks. The defining criteria of Major Depressive
Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Mental Retardation: A cognitive delay that is characterized by below-average intellectual ability and is accompanied by limitations in adaptive behavior (e.g., self-care, communication, life skills at home, or social skills). Severe Mental Retardation is often diagnosed early in childhood, since the child is not achieving developmental milestones on time. Milder Mental Retardation is often diagnosed later in childhood after assessment with an intellectual test and adaptive behavior scales indicates that the child is functioning in the below-average range. The definition and description of types of mental retardation may also be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder: When a child has both receptive difficulties and expressive difficulties, this child is said to have a Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder. This Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder is described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Modifications: A term commonly used to refer to classroom curriculum changes in order to better individualize the instruction for a child. Examples of modifications include reducing the number of math problems, allowing a child with written language difficulties to write only one paragraph rather than the required five paragraphs, and teaching daily living skills to a child with developmental delays rather than requiring the child to be taught the mainstream curriculum. The term “accommodations” is used when the curriculum stays the same but added supports are provided for the student to help him or her better access the curriculum. See the definition of “accommodations” above.
Mood Disorder: A disorder in which a disturbance of mood is the predominant feature. Examples of Mood Disorders include Major Depressive Disorder, Dysthymic Disorder, and Bipolar Disorder. Each of these mood disorders is defined elsewhere in this glossary. The defining criteria of mood disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Naturalistic observation: A method of observation whereby someone is observed in a natural setting and under natural conditions. When a naturalistic observation is done on a child, the observer watches the child in natural conditions and notes without judgment all that is seen.
Neurodevelopmental profiles: A term to refer to the strengths and weaknesses of each child in order to determine why he or she has trouble learning. This is a concept Dr. Mel Levine uses in his book A Mind at a Time. All children have a unique profile of skills such as memory, language, and attention. A challenge in one or more of these areas could lead to academic delays.
Neuropsychological testing: An assessment in which a battery of tests is given to a person suspected of having neurological dysfunction. The results of the tests can provide information about how the person is performing in certain areas. Neuropsychological testing is most commonly completed by a board certified clinical neuropsychologist.
Norms: Measurements of a large group of people that are used for comparing the scores of an individual with those of the group.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): An anxiety disorder that is characterized by obsessions (i.e., recurrent thoughts that cannot be suppressed) and compulsions (i.e., repetitive patterns of behavior). The defining criteria of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Oppositional Defiant Disorder: A disorder in which the child is persistently negative, defiant, disobedient, or hostile toward people of authority. The defining criteria of Oppositional Defiant Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Pervasive Developmental Disorder: A disorders with origins in early childhood that are characterized by significant impairment in several areas: social interaction; communication; and/or the presence of stereotyped behavior, interests, and activities. Clinicians often use the term “Autism spectrum disorders” interchangeably with this term. Examples of a Pervasive Developmental Disorder include Autistic Disorder and Asperger’s Disorder. The defining criteria of Pervasive Developmental Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Phonological Disorder: A communication disorder in which a child has difficulty using expected speech sounds. The defining criteria of phonological disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Positive behavioral support (PBS): A system-wide and proactive method in which behavioral challenges in a school are prevented and responded to with data-based decision making.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: An Anxiety Disorder characterized by repeated re-experiencing of traumatic events through distressing thoughts, dreams, flashbacks, or hallucinations. The defining criteria of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Problem-solving approach: A step-by-step procedure that helps to clarify concerns and to systematically investigate possible causes for the behavioral, social, or learning challenges that you see in your child.
Processing speed: A term used to describe how quickly a child processes information. children have difficulty quickly understanding directions or producing written material in a prompt matter because their overall ability to process information is slow and painstaking.
Profile-based approach: An intervention approach in which the parents use information about their child to create an effective intervention plan that will address both the areas of need as well as areas of strength.
Psychopathology: Behaviors/emotions that are considered abnormal. Psychopathology is synonymous with the term “mental illness.”
Psychotic Disorders: Disorders in which a person experiences delusions or hallucinations. The most common type of Psychotic Disorder is Schizophrenia. The defining criteria of Psychotic Disorder may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Puzzling behavior: A term used frequently throughout this guide to initially describe children with behavioral, social, and/or learning challenges. The term is used when a comprehensive understanding of the child has not yet been developed. Here the term “puzzling” only implies that something about the child’s behavior seems unusual in comparison to other children’s behavior. The child with puzzling behavior may have a legitimate disorder or the child with puzzling behavior may not have anything wrong.
Receptive Language Disorder: A communication disorder in which is a child has difficulty understanding aspects of spoken language.
Reinforcement: Something that is given to the child that increases a particular behavior; this is considered positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is something that is taken away that results in an increase in a particular behavior.
Resiliency factors: Characteristics that protect an individual from developing psychopathology. An example of a resiliency factor is a child having many positive relationships. The relationships may help protect the child from developing significant difficulties.
Risk factors: Characteristics that increase the risk of an individual developing psychopathology. For example, a risk factor for a child developing depression is lack of social support at home or school. If someone feels isolated, he or she is more prone to depression. Risk factors can be biological, environmental, or social.
Rule out: A term that is used by clinicians to indicate that more investigation of a certain possible causal factor is needed. For example, if a physician states that she needs to “rule out” thyroid problems as a possible cause of depression, this means that the physician needs to investigate whether thyroid problems are present.
Scaffolding: An instructional technique in which the child is provided with strong supports as he or she acquires a new skill. As the skill is mastered, the supports are systematically reduced and eventually removed.
Schizophrenia: A type of Psychotic Disorder in which an individual has impairments in perception. A person with Schizophrenia may demonstrate disorganized thinking, delusions, or hallucinations. The defining criteria of Schizophrenia may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Second language acquisition: A term to note that a child is acquiring another language in addition to his or her native language.
Seizure disorders: Uncoordinated electrical discharges that spread throughout the brain. Epilepsy is a seizure disorder.
Sensory Processing Disorder: A neurological disorder that is manifested by processing difficulties in a number of sensory areas (e.g., vision, auditory, movement). Sensory information is received but may be processed abnormally. Sensory Processing Disorder, formally called Sensory Integration Disorder, is typically diagnosed and treated by an occupational therapist.
Setting events (distant events): A term used in functional behavioral assessment to refer to environmental events that precede the behavior of concern at some point in time. Setting events occur before antecedent events since antecedent events immediately precede the behavior. Setting events can also be events that occur concurrently with the antecedent event. Examples of these events include hunger, thirst, fatigue, or mood issues.
Social cognitive processing: The ability to accurately pick up and understand social cues in the environment.
Social skills: Skills that allow one to effectively interact and establish meaningful relationships with others.
Sleep apnea: A sleep disorder that is characterized by breathing pauses during sleep.
Specific Phobia: An Anxiety Disorder that is characterized by a persistent fear of an object or situation (e.g., fear of insects). The defining criteria of Specific Phobia may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Stereotypic: A term describing repetitive and habitual types of behaviors.
Strength-based approach: An approach is which interventions build or enhance the identified strengths of a child. For example, if a child with social difficulties and no friends also plays violin, a strength-based approach to intervention would have a goal of increasing the level of competence on violin.
Stressors: Events that happen to a person that create a “stress reaction.” Stressors can be daily hassle-type events, such as having a flat tire when rushing to work. Stressors can also be major life events, such as the death of a loved one. Stressors can be both positive and negative since each type of situation can produce a stress reaction.
Stress reaction: Reaction to a stressor. The reaction can be physiological or psychological. For example, if a child has to change schools, a possible stress reaction could be an increase of angry outbursts. The type of stress reaction is dependent on the type of stressor and the person’s interpretation of the stressor. A change of schools for one child may be positive and cause stress due to overexcitement. The change of schools for another child may be negative and result in more angry behavior.
Stuttering: A Communication Disorder in which the child has difficulties with verbal fluency and time patterning of speech. The defining criteria of Stuttering may be found in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR).
Summary statements: Statements used to summarize the findings of a functional behavioral assessment. Summary statements include a description of the factors surrounding the cause of a behavior of concern and a statement of what the function of the behavior is hypothesized to be.
Target behavior: The behavior of concern that is the focus of intervention.
Temperament: Innate, genetically based aspect of an individual’s personality. Some children, for example, are born with a predisposition to be anxious.
Teratogen: Any agent (e.g., medication, chemical, disease) that may interfere with the normal development of the fetus.
Transition: Moving from one place or activity to another.
Visual discrimination: Skill in discriminating small visual images.
Visual-spatial learner: A child who learns best when the content is seen. This child tends to think in pictures and in a holistic fashion.