Memory
Abstraction of Information into Memory
Generally, we remember better if the information is meaningful material.
http://www.exploratorium.edu/exhibits/droodles/
This website is an interactive website. It will allow you to see for yourself that information is best remembered when it has meaning behind it.
Definitions of different types of memory
Verbal and Visual Memory
Verbal memory: memory for words and other verbal items
Visual memory: memory for visual items - faces, images ect.
Verbal and Visual Memory Test
- CHAPTER 5:
Abstraction of Information into Memory
Generally, we remember better if the information is meaningful material.
http://www.exploratorium.edu/exhibits/droodles/
This website is an interactive website. It will allow you to see for yourself that information is best remembered when it has meaning behind it.
Definitions of different types of memory
Verbal and Visual Memory
Verbal memory: memory for words and other verbal items
Visual memory: memory for visual items - faces, images ect.
Verbal and Visual Memory Test
FMRI Scan of the brain while remembering visual information
In scan 1, a subject is asked to remember a face. Areas at the rear of the brain that process visual information are active during this task, as is an area in the frontal lobe.
In scan 1, a subject is asked to remember a face. Areas at the rear of the brain that process visual information are active during this task, as is an area in the frontal lobe.
In scan 2, the subject is asked to "think about this face." Surprisingly, the hippocampus is activated - the first time this has been documented. The hippocampus was already known to be important for memory, but these results show that this part of the brain is specifically active during the time when we are remembering new information.
In scans 3 and 4, the subject was asked to compare another face to the remembered face. Some of the same visual areas are activated as during the initial memory task, but other areas, such as part of the frontal lobe, are involved in making a decision about the memory.
http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2000/11/20_mri.html
http://discoveryhealth.queendom.com/visual_memory.html
Try this website to understand how good or bad your visual memory works.
http://discoveryhealth.queendom.com/visual_memory.html
Try this website to understand how good or bad your visual memory works.
Propositional Representation: The idea that we remember information as a proposition or "the smallest unit of knowledge that can either be true or false" (Anderson)
This website explains a little better and gives a simple example
of Propositional Representation
Propositional Networks: The visual representation of propositions and their links
Schemata and Categories of Membership
A schema (pl. schemata), in psychology and cognitive science, is a mental structure that represents some aspect of the world. This learning theory views organized knowledge as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent one's understanding of the world. Schema theory was developed by R. C. Anderson, a respected educational psychologist . The term schema was first used by Piaget in 1926, so it was not an entirely new concept. Anderson, however, expanded the meaning.
People use schemata to organize current knowledge and provide a framework for future understanding. Examples of schemata include rubrics, stereotypes, social roles, scripts, worldviews, and archetypes. In Piaget's theory of development, children adopt a series of schemata to understand the world.
Diagram of a sample schema
Here is a diagram that describes how a person's schema of "egg" might include the components shown:
Characteristics of Schemata
- Schemata are always organized meaningfully, can be added to, and, as an individual gains experience, develop to include more variables and more specificity.
- Each schema is embedded in other schemata and itself contains subschema.
- Schemata change moment by moment as information is received.
- They may also be reorganized when incoming data reveals a need to restructure the concept.
- The mental representations used during perception and comprehension, and which evolve as a result of these processes, combine to form a whole which is greater than the sum of its parts.
These are types of schema
Person schemas- Schemas about the attributes (skills, competencies, values) of a particular individual. This often takes the form the personality we attribute to that person.
Event schemas (cognitive scripts)- These are processes, practices, or ways in which we typically approach tasks and problems. They are the programs we call upon when faced with a certain stimulus. These are behaviorally oriented
Role schemas- These schema contain sets of role expectations, that is, how we expect an individual occupying a certain role to behavior. Perceptual Symbol Systems
and
Amodal Symbol Systems
and
Amodal Symbol Systems
Perceptual Symbol System Model
Subsets of perceptual states in sensory-motor systems are extracted and stored in long-term memory to function as symbols. As a result, the internal structure of these symbols is modal, and they are analogically related to the perceptual states that produced them.
VS.
Amodal Symbol System Model
The proposal that information is represented by symbols that are not associated with a particular modality.
Abstraction Theory: Theory that the information we retain is an abstract representation of the central
tendencies of the concept; we store the information in general terms
Chapter 6:
Human Memory: Encoding and Storage
This chapter focuses on how we get information into memory.
Short Term Memory Vs. Long Term Memory
Short-term Memory:
Short-term memory acts as a scratch-pad for temporary recall of the information under process. For instance, in order to understand this sentence you need to see in your mind the beginning of the sentence you read the rest. Short term memory decays very quickly and has a limited capacity. This video from Finding Nemo, demonstrates how quickly an individual who cannot encode in short term will forget details.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qh5HSjqC9u8
1.) ACT: (Adaptive control of Thought) Declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge interact in complex cognitive processes.
2.) SAM: (Search of Associative Memory) Availability of memories is a function of their familiarity, which in turn is a function of their association with cues in the environment.
Working Memory:
Baddeley's Theory of Working Memory
http://cat.xula.edu/thinker/memory/working/
Human Memory: Encoding and Storage
This chapter focuses on how we get information into memory.
Short Term Memory Vs. Long Term Memory
Short-term Memory:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qh5HSjqC9u8
Regionally, the short-term memory depends heavily on the frontal structures of the brain for the creation of new memories. Here you will find short-term memory exercises. http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chmemory.html
Long-term Memory:
Long term memory is memory stored for meaning and is information stored in the brain and retrievable over a long period of time, often over the entire life span of the individual. Regionally, the long-term memory depends on the temporal structures for the permanent storage of memories.
Long term memory is memory stored for meaning and is information stored in the brain and retrievable over a long period of time, often over the entire life span of the individual. Regionally, the long-term memory depends on the temporal structures for the permanent storage of memories.
Activation:
Activation determines both the probability and speed of access to memory. Its an important part to our long term memory. Different pieces of information in long-term memory can vary from moment to moment. It just depends on how available those memories are at certain times. The book describes two theories associated with activation:
Activation determines both the probability and speed of access to memory. Its an important part to our long term memory. Different pieces of information in long-term memory can vary from moment to moment. It just depends on how available those memories are at certain times. The book describes two theories associated with activation:
1.) ACT: (Adaptive control of Thought) Declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge interact in complex cognitive processes.
2.) SAM: (Search of Associative Memory) Availability of memories is a function of their familiarity, which in turn is a function of their association with cues in the environment.
*If you are still having trouble grasping the idea of long term memory, activation or need a memory overview, check out these sites. They break it down a little clearer.
* Long-term memory help: http://users.ipfw.edu/abbott/120/LongTermMemory.html
* Long-term memory video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o6SCPAP4D60
Working Memory:
Baddeley's Theory of Working Memory
* Working Memory is the information that is currently available in memory for working on a problem. Baddeley felt that rehearsal played a big part in the way we store information.
* If you are confused about the working memory these sites helps break down working memory into Braddeley's three parts that may help it seem easier.
Working Memory: http://www.learnplus.com/guides/learning-sys-memo.html* If you are confused about the working memory these sites helps break down working memory into Braddeley's three parts that may help it seem easier.
http://cat.xula.edu/thinker/memory/working/
Sensory Memory:
Iconic & Echoic Memory with Partial Report vs. Whole Report Procedure
*The book focuses alot on George Sperling's Experiments involving Sensory Memory.In 1960 he introduced his works with memory span,which then spread out to Partial-report and Whole-report Procedures.Sperling's experiments are important because his discoveries led to what is now called Iconic memory and Echoic memory. Below are the definitions and examples that may help you better understand how and what sensory memory does.
Partial-report Procedure vs. Whole Report Procedure:
Long Term Potentiation
Iconic & Echoic Memory with Partial Report vs. Whole Report Procedure
*The book focuses alot on George Sperling's Experiments involving Sensory Memory.In 1960 he introduced his works with memory span,which then spread out to Partial-report and Whole-report Procedures.Sperling's experiments are important because his discoveries led to what is now called Iconic memory and Echoic memory. Below are the definitions and examples that may help you better understand how and what sensory memory does.
Iconic Memory: (Visual) Sensory Memory lasting less than one second. A memory system that can effectively see all the information in the visual display. Here is a website that deals with exercises in iconic memory. http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072965037/student_view0/memory6/interactive_activities.html#
Echoic Memory: (Auditory) Sensory Memory lasting less that four seconds. People can report an auditory stimulus with considerable accuracy if probed for it soon after onset.
*This site helps break Iconic and Echoic Memory down into examples that you can relate to your self. It may help you better understand how we use Iconic and Echoic memory.
http://library.thinkquest.org/C0110291/basic/brain/sensory.php Partial-report Procedure vs. Whole Report Procedure:
This breaks down pretty easy. Focus on the words.
For partial-report the participants are only cued to report some of the items in a display. Vs. Whole-report, where participants are asked to report all the items in a display.
-This was significant in because for the first time there was an explanation why researchers were not getting solid data when using whole-report procedures. When using whole-report procedures, participants could not produce all the items in the display because Sperling believed some of the items faded from this type of memory before the participants could attend to them.
-This was significant in because for the first time there was an explanation why researchers were not getting solid data when using whole-report procedures. When using whole-report procedures, participants could not produce all the items in the display because Sperling believed some of the items faded from this type of memory before the participants could attend to them.
*For more on Sperling's Experiments, visit the following site to view the actual experiment with results. It really helps break down his work to a less complex version than what the book has.
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761578303/Memory_(psychology).htmlLong Term Potentiation
Long-term Potentiation (LTP):
Occurs in the hippocampus and cortical areas, is an increase in responsiveness of a neuron as a function of past stimulation.
Occurs in the hippocampus and cortical areas, is an increase in responsiveness of a neuron as a function of past stimulation.
This website explains LTP so easily: http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/d/d_07/d_07_m/d_07_m_tra/d_07_m_tra.html
Long-term potentiation video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pcv-_tmM07k
Craik and Lockhart's Depth of Processing Proposal:
The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall.
PQ4R | |
Preview |
Survey the material to get an idea of the general organization, major topics and subtopics. Look at headings and pictures to try to identify what you will be reading about. |
Question |
Ask questions about the material as you read it. Use headings to ask questions (who, what, why, where) |
Read |
Read the material. Try to answer your own questions while reading. |
Reflect |
Think about the material that you just read and try to make it meaningful by: 1)relating it to things that you already know about, 2)relating the subtopics to primary topics, 3)trying to resolve contradictions, 4) trying to use the material to solve simulated problems. |
Recite |
Practice remembering the information by stating points aloud and asking and answering questions. Use headings, highlighted words and notes on major ideas. |
Review |
Actively review the material, focusing on asking yourself questions and rereading the material only when you are not sure of the answers. |
The Method of Loci
It is a type of mnemonic device based on CLASs (loci, otherwise known as locations), used most often in cases where long lists of items are concerned. It was taught for many centuries as a part of the curriculum in schools, enabling an orator to easily remember a speech or students to easily remember many things at will. You can recall by visiting class in sequence and retrieving the stored item.
Website: http://www.ba.infn.it/~zito/loci.html
Flashbulb Memory
It is a type of mnemonic device based on CLASs (loci, otherwise known as locations), used most often in cases where long lists of items are concerned. It was taught for many centuries as a part of the curriculum in schools, enabling an orator to easily remember a speech or students to easily remember many things at will. You can recall by visiting class in sequence and retrieving the stored item.
| Employing imagery associated with a list of location | |
|
|
Website: http://www.ba.infn.it/~zito/loci.html
Flashbulb Memory
Memory that was laid down in great detail during a personally significant events, often a shocking event of national or international importance. These memories are perceived to Save a "photographic" quality. Flashbulb memories typically are remarkably vivid and seemingly permane-s memories. These memories are typically of highly emotional and personal events in one's life. Flashbulb memories can also be of personal circumstances during an eve-s that did not affect one personally, such as a assassination or a devastating airline crash.
Check out this site for more on Flashbulb Memory:
Check out this site for more on Flashbulb Memory:
Chapter 7:
Human Memory: Retention and Retrieval
This chapter focuses more on the temporal (and particularly the hippocampal) contributions to the memory.
Several experiments have been conducted, but although the data collected is intriguing it does not prove that all memory is remembered. This is because most of these memory experiments can only rely on what people say they remember, not on solid evidence. Although many of these experiments have been discounted, they do show that even when people appear to have forgotten memories, there is certain evidence from these experiments that shows that the memories are still there.
Several experiments have been conducted, but although the data collected is intriguing it does not prove that all memory is remembered. This is because most of these memory experiments can only rely on what people say they remember, not on solid evidence. Although many of these experiments have been discounted, they do show that even when people appear to have forgotten memories, there is certain evidence from these experiments that shows that the memories are still there.
The Retention Function
-Several experiments have been conducted to test the effectiveness and function of retention. A general consensus has been reached that suggests that memory deteriorates with time.
-Amongst these is the experiment conducted by Wickelgren in 1975, in which he presented participants with a sequence of words to study and then examined the probability of them recognizing the words after delays ranging from minutes to days. After all data was collected, evidence showed that the performance systematically deteriorated with delay. However, they found that these changes were negatively accelerated, which means that the rate of change got smaller and smaller with delay. The Wickelgren Power Law
-The Power Law of Forgetting is the phenomenon that memory performance deteriorates as a power function of the retention interval, it is the relationship in which retention functions are generally power functions. ex. In a study conducted by Bahrick, he looked at participants' retention of Spanish-English vocabulary immediately or after years of having taken college courses. He came to the conclusion that the strength of the memory trace decays with time.
-The Decay Theory of Forgetting is one of the common explanations of forgetting and it suggests that memory traces simply decay in strength with time. Decay Theory Explanation
Interference Effects
-Interference Effects is the theory that suggests that forgetting is caused by other memories interfering with the retention of the target memory. This theory is a contrast to the Decay Theory. Interference Theory Description
-Time is not the only factor affecting loss of memory. Another factor affecting loss of memory is interfering material.
-A study was conducted focusing on how the learning of one list of paired associates would affect the memory for another list. For example, participants were asked to study a list of words paired with numbers and those pairs paired with other pairs (cat-43 and house-61) then participants are asked to study another list of pairs (act-82 and house-37).
-So the conclusion of the study showed that learning additional associations to a stimuli can cause the old ones to be forgotten.
The Fan Effect
-The Fan Effect is the phenomenon in which the retrieval of memories takes longer as more things are associated with the items composing the original memories. The Fan Effect
-Yet another study was conducted to test the basic idea that when participants are presented with a stimulus such as cat, activation will spread from it to all of its associates. Yet it is believed that the more things associated with that source, the less activation that will spread to any particular memory structure. This study consisted of participants studying a list of facts connecting people with locations (ex. The doctor is in the bank). After participants memorized the list a new list of facts was created and participants were asked to say if they had seen the sentence before or not, reaction times were measured. The conclusion was that the more facts associated with a concept, the slower is retrieval of any one of the facts.
Interference with Preexperimental Memories
-So they wanted to know the possibility of preexisting memories conflicting with a study in the laboratory. So an experiment was conducted, in which participants were given a list about fantasy facts about public figures (like Napoleon Bonaparte was from India). Afterwards participants were asked to complete an exam that contained both true facts and fantasy facts, they were supposed to respond true to the fantasy statements learned and false to the true statements. Study showed that the more fantasy facts participants learned about a public figure, the longer they took to recognize a fact that they already knew about the individual.
-So basically material learned in the laboratory can interfere with material learned outside of the laboratory.
Interference and Decay
-As explained before forgetting does not come simply from memory decay, it is also attributed by interference of other memories.
-Studies have been conducted, concluding that less is forgotten during sleep, yet it is not sleep that makes a difference but the time of the day in which the material is learned. It is believed that people better remember things when they learn them at night.
Interference and Redundancy
-Interference can only occur if one is learning multiple pieces of information that have no relationship to one another. So, interference can not occur if the information being learned is somewhat redundant.
-So when talking about interference and redundancy, learning redundant material does not interfere with a target memory and may even facilitate the target memory.
Retrieval and Inference
-Whenever people cannot remember a particular fact, they are able to retrieve related fats and to infer facts that are already in memory and associate them with facts about a given target.
- In order to demonstrate this Bransford, Barclay, and Franks reposted an experiment in which participants were asked to read a passage about a women, and recall details later, while the other group read two passages about different women, and were asked to recall later.
-The conclusion was that in trying to remember material, people will use what they can remember to infer what else they might have studied.
-This is a Web site to learn how interference influences the ability to recall information. Interference Experiment
Plausible Retrieval
-An experiment was conducted to see how people reacted to being put in a situation where they had to either exactly retrieve information or retrieve plausible information.
- In this experiment participants were asked to read a paragraph with information about a person, then one group was asked to to look at a list of sentences and decide if they were plausible according to the story, while the other group had to look at the sentences and decide if it was part of the story. Data showed that the more a participant learned about a person the longer it took him to respond to the plausibility of an statement because he had more information to judge statement on. Also a participant would take longer trying to extract exact information rather than determining if the statements presented were plausible.
-In conclusion, people will often judge what plausibly might be rather that try to retrieve exact facts.
The Interaction of Elaboration and Inferential Reconstruction
-In an experiment conducted by Owens, Bower, and Black, participants of one group were asked to read a passage, and participants in the other group read the same passage with additional information at the beginning. These participants were then asked to the story a day later, the participants in the group with the additional text, made much more inferences about the story that was not even part of the story. Another observation was that participants remembered better things that they elaborated on more.
- So to conclude, when participants elaborate on a material while studying it, they tend to recall more of what they studied and also tend to recall inferences that they did not study.
2nd part of chapter 7--- Renfroe's part (sorry I'm not here)
Eyewitness Testimony: critical to separate inference from actual experience
Eyewitnesses are often inaccurate when they give their account of a story. This is due to the eyewitness confusing what they saw with what other people Save already said. For example: A lawyer asks 3 witnesses of a car accident how fast the car was going when it passed a yield sign. Even though there was no yield sign, the witnesses reported having seen one. These witnesses did not separate inference from actual experience.
False memory syndrome: memories of childhood abuse that were "recovered" but had actually never occurred.
Loftus and Pickerall (1995): convinced 25% of adult participants that they had been lost in a mall as a child. Not true though.
Loftus, Ceci, Leichtman, and Bruck (1995): created false memories in 3 to 6-year-old children.
http://faculty.washington.edu/eloftus/Articles/sciam.htm: This is a page that has several cases of false memories and some thorough explanations of why. (kind of lengthy but still good.)
** Errors of memory can come from people not separating what was actually experienced from what they imagined.**
False Memories and The Brain: difficult to differentiate between what was true, false, and new.
*Original Study by Deese (1959), elaborated by Roediger and McDermott (1995)*
Cabeze, Rao, Wagner, Mayer, and Schater (2001):
Gave participants 2 list of words where the words are related
(similar to this: #1 thread, pin, eye, sewing, sharp etc. #2 bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, etc)
Then participants are given a series of words- must decide if they had studied those words.
True- words in the 2 lists
False- words not in lists but strongly related to those in lists
New- words not in list or related
Cabezo et al. found that 88% of the true items and only 12% of new were accepted; HOWEVER, 80% of the false items were also accepted.
These findings led to examination of the brain and the activation patterns produced in the cortex.
paaaaaaaIn an fMRI Cabeza et al. found that the true and false words produced similar responses in the hippocampus proper. In the parahippocampal gyrus- adjace-s to hippocampus proper- the true responses a larger hemodynamic response and the false and new items produced identical weak responses. So, Cabeza et al. suggested that the parahippocampus retains the ORIGINAL sensory experience and the hippocampus S=s a more abstract representation.
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21661183/ : An interview with Roberto Cabeza about false memories on CNN.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/11/031111072018.htm: This cite gives a little better explanation of what parts of the brain are activated in true and false memories. (also a little lengthy)
The Effects of Encoding Context
Context Cues: Along with associated cues, context cues can Save a bearing on the recall of information or events. The context is affecting the encoding of the what is going into the memory.
**If you learn something in one certain setting, it is easier to recall it in the same setting**
For example: based on Smith, Glenberg, and Bjork (1978)\76="">="TEXT-ALIGN:center">
The same guy dressed like this teaches you a list of paired associates in a tiny classroom with windows via tape recorder.
A day later you are tested for recall for half the paired associates in one setting and half in the other.
** Participants could recall 59% of the words in the same setting as the list was learned and only 46% in the other setting than the list was learned.**
{This suggests to us as students we should create a setting at home to learn the material that is like that of the setting we will be tested over the material. This may bring our grades up and that is always good.}
Mood Congruence: we can remember a happy memory when we are happy and a sad memory when we are sad.
So in sum for encoding:
People show higher rate of remembering if their outside contexts match their inside mood or state.
People show higher rate of remembering if the setting at study matches the setting at test.
People show a higher rate of word remembering it the tested words are in the same context at testing as it was at studying.
Hippocampal Formation and Amnesia
Damage to the Hippocampal area cause amnesia (memory loss) in humANs.
A few causes of damage to this area include:
-severe blow to the head
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/korsakoff's_syndromele-spahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/korsakoff's_syndromel74/a="">
n n this cite gives a full explanation of Korsakoff's syndrome (what it is, causes, treatme-s, etc.) more detailed than the book
Damage can cause retrograde amnesia (loss of memories before the event)
and anterograde amnesia (inability to learn new things)
Implicit versus Explicit Memory
Explicit memory: knowledge that we can consciously recall. (aka declarative memory)
Implicit memory: cannot consciously recall but still is there in our improved performance. (aka non declarative memory)
A little more detail than the book:
Prcedural Knowledge: it's just like riding a bike...
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/korsakoff's_syndromele-spasp4/a=
This Web site will prepare you for the test on Thursday.
http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/anderson6e/default.asp?s=&n=&i=&v=&o=&ns=0&uid=0&rau=0
-Several experiments have been conducted to test the effectiveness and function of retention. A general consensus has been reached that suggests that memory deteriorates with time.
-Amongst these is the experiment conducted by Wickelgren in 1975, in which he presented participants with a sequence of words to study and then examined the probability of them recognizing the words after delays ranging from minutes to days. After all data was collected, evidence showed that the performance systematically deteriorated with delay. However, they found that these changes were negatively accelerated, which means that the rate of change got smaller and smaller with delay. The Wickelgren Power Law
-The Power Law of Forgetting is the phenomenon that memory performance deteriorates as a power function of the retention interval, it is the relationship in which retention functions are generally power functions. ex. In a study conducted by Bahrick, he looked at participants' retention of Spanish-English vocabulary immediately or after years of having taken college courses. He came to the conclusion that the strength of the memory trace decays with time.
-The Decay Theory of Forgetting is one of the common explanations of forgetting and it suggests that memory traces simply decay in strength with time. Decay Theory Explanation
Interference Effects
-Interference Effects is the theory that suggests that forgetting is caused by other memories interfering with the retention of the target memory. This theory is a contrast to the Decay Theory. Interference Theory Description
-Time is not the only factor affecting loss of memory. Another factor affecting loss of memory is interfering material.
-A study was conducted focusing on how the learning of one list of paired associates would affect the memory for another list. For example, participants were asked to study a list of words paired with numbers and those pairs paired with other pairs (cat-43 and house-61) then participants are asked to study another list of pairs (act-82 and house-37).
-So the conclusion of the study showed that learning additional associations to a stimuli can cause the old ones to be forgotten.
The Fan Effect
-The Fan Effect is the phenomenon in which the retrieval of memories takes longer as more things are associated with the items composing the original memories. The Fan Effect
-Yet another study was conducted to test the basic idea that when participants are presented with a stimulus such as cat, activation will spread from it to all of its associates. Yet it is believed that the more things associated with that source, the less activation that will spread to any particular memory structure. This study consisted of participants studying a list of facts connecting people with locations (ex. The doctor is in the bank). After participants memorized the list a new list of facts was created and participants were asked to say if they had seen the sentence before or not, reaction times were measured. The conclusion was that the more facts associated with a concept, the slower is retrieval of any one of the facts.
Interference with Preexperimental Memories
-So they wanted to know the possibility of preexisting memories conflicting with a study in the laboratory. So an experiment was conducted, in which participants were given a list about fantasy facts about public figures (like Napoleon Bonaparte was from India). Afterwards participants were asked to complete an exam that contained both true facts and fantasy facts, they were supposed to respond true to the fantasy statements learned and false to the true statements. Study showed that the more fantasy facts participants learned about a public figure, the longer they took to recognize a fact that they already knew about the individual.
-So basically material learned in the laboratory can interfere with material learned outside of the laboratory.
-As explained before forgetting does not come simply from memory decay, it is also attributed by interference of other memories.
-Studies have been conducted, concluding that less is forgotten during sleep, yet it is not sleep that makes a difference but the time of the day in which the material is learned. It is believed that people better remember things when they learn them at night.
Interference and Redundancy
-Interference can only occur if one is learning multiple pieces of information that have no relationship to one another. So, interference can not occur if the information being learned is somewhat redundant.
-So when talking about interference and redundancy, learning redundant material does not interfere with a target memory and may even facilitate the target memory.
Retrieval and Inference
-Whenever people cannot remember a particular fact, they are able to retrieve related fats and to infer facts that are already in memory and associate them with facts about a given target.
- In order to demonstrate this Bransford, Barclay, and Franks reposted an experiment in which participants were asked to read a passage about a women, and recall details later, while the other group read two passages about different women, and were asked to recall later.
-The conclusion was that in trying to remember material, people will use what they can remember to infer what else they might have studied.
-This is a Web site to learn how interference influences the ability to recall information. Interference Experiment
-An experiment was conducted to see how people reacted to being put in a situation where they had to either exactly retrieve information or retrieve plausible information.
- In this experiment participants were asked to read a paragraph with information about a person, then one group was asked to to look at a list of sentences and decide if they were plausible according to the story, while the other group had to look at the sentences and decide if it was part of the story. Data showed that the more a participant learned about a person the longer it took him to respond to the plausibility of an statement because he had more information to judge statement on. Also a participant would take longer trying to extract exact information rather than determining if the statements presented were plausible.
-In conclusion, people will often judge what plausibly might be rather that try to retrieve exact facts.
-In an experiment conducted by Owens, Bower, and Black, participants of one group were asked to read a passage, and participants in the other group read the same passage with additional information at the beginning. These participants were then asked to the story a day later, the participants in the group with the additional text, made much more inferences about the story that was not even part of the story. Another observation was that participants remembered better things that they elaborated on more.
- So to conclude, when participants elaborate on a material while studying it, they tend to recall more of what they studied and also tend to recall inferences that they did not study.
2nd part of chapter 7--- Renfroe's part (sorry I'm not here)
Eyewitness Testimony: critical to separate inference from actual experience
Eyewitnesses are often inaccurate when they give their account of a story. This is due to the eyewitness confusing what they saw with what other people Save already said. For example: A lawyer asks 3 witnesses of a car accident how fast the car was going when it passed a yield sign. Even though there was no yield sign, the witnesses reported having seen one. These witnesses did not separate inference from actual experience.
False memory syndrome: memories of childhood abuse that were "recovered" but had actually never occurred.
Loftus and Pickerall (1995): convinced 25% of adult participants that they had been lost in a mall as a child. Not true though.
Loftus, Ceci, Leichtman, and Bruck (1995): created false memories in 3 to 6-year-old children.
http://faculty.washington.edu/eloftus/Articles/sciam.htm: This is a page that has several cases of false memories and some thorough explanations of why. (kind of lengthy but still good.)
** Errors of memory can come from people not separating what was actually experienced from what they imagined.**
False Memories and The Brain: difficult to differentiate between what was true, false, and new.
*Original Study by Deese (1959), elaborated by Roediger and McDermott (1995)*
Cabeze, Rao, Wagner, Mayer, and Schater (2001):
Gave participants 2 list of words where the words are related
(similar to this: #1 thread, pin, eye, sewing, sharp etc. #2 bed, rest, awake, tired, dream, etc)
Then participants are given a series of words- must decide if they had studied those words.
True- words in the 2 lists
False- words not in lists but strongly related to those in lists
New- words not in list or related
Cabezo et al. found that 88% of the true items and only 12% of new were accepted; HOWEVER, 80% of the false items were also accepted.
These findings led to examination of the brain and the activation patterns produced in the cortex.
paaaaaaaIn an fMRI Cabeza et al. found that the true and false words produced similar responses in the hippocampus proper. In the parahippocampal gyrus- adjace-s to hippocampus proper- the true responses a larger hemodynamic response and the false and new items produced identical weak responses. So, Cabeza et al. suggested that the parahippocampus retains the ORIGINAL sensory experience and the hippocampus S=s a more abstract representation.
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21661183/ : An interview with Roberto Cabeza about false memories on CNN.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/11/031111072018.htm: This cite gives a little better explanation of what parts of the brain are activated in true and false memories. (also a little lengthy)
The Effects of Encoding Context
Context Cues: Along with associated cues, context cues can Save a bearing on the recall of information or events. The context is affecting the encoding of the what is going into the memory.
**If you learn something in one certain setting, it is easier to recall it in the same setting**
For example: based on Smith, Glenberg, and Bjork (1978)\76="">="TEXT-ALIGN:center">
The same guy dressed like this teaches you a list of paired associates in a tiny classroom with windows via tape recorder.
A day later you are tested for recall for half the paired associates in one setting and half in the other.
** Participants could recall 59% of the words in the same setting as the list was learned and only 46% in the other setting than the list was learned.**
{This suggests to us as students we should create a setting at home to learn the material that is like that of the setting we will be tested over the material. This may bring our grades up and that is always good.}
Mood Congruence: we can remember a happy memory when we are happy and a sad memory when we are sad.
So in sum for encoding:
People show higher rate of remembering if their outside contexts match their inside mood or state.
People show higher rate of remembering if the setting at study matches the setting at test.
People show a higher rate of word remembering it the tested words are in the same context at testing as it was at studying.
Hippocampal Formation and Amnesia
Damage to the Hippocampal area cause amnesia (memory loss) in humANs.
A few causes of damage to this area include:
-severe blow to the head
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/korsakoff's_syndromele-spahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/korsakoff's_syndromel74/a="">
n n this cite gives a full explanation of Korsakoff's syndrome (what it is, causes, treatme-s, etc.) more detailed than the book
Damage can cause retrograde amnesia (loss of memories before the event)
and anterograde amnesia (inability to learn new things)
Implicit versus Explicit Memory
Explicit memory: knowledge that we can consciously recall. (aka declarative memory)
Implicit memory: cannot consciously recall but still is there in our improved performance. (aka non declarative memory)
A little more detail than the book:
Prcedural Knowledge: it's just like riding a bike...
//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/korsakoff's_syndromele-spasp4/a=
This Web site will prepare you for the test on Thursday.
http://bcs.worthpublishers.com/anderson6e/default.asp?s=&n=&i=&v=&o=&ns=0&uid=0&rau=0